644:
625:
577:
2503:) represent, in principle, the phonemes of the language being written. This is most obviously the case when the alphabet was invented with a particular language in mind; for example, the Latin alphabet was devised for Classical Latin, and therefore the Latin of that period enjoyed a near one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes in most cases, though the devisers of the alphabet chose not to represent the phonemic effect of vowel length. However, because changes in the spoken language are often not accompanied by changes in the established
357:
373:
1003:
985:
994:
976:
4497:
4234:
1654:
47:
2146:, the number of distinct phonemes will generally be smaller than the number of identifiably different sounds. Different languages vary considerably in the number of phonemes they have in their systems (although apparent variation may sometimes result from the different approaches taken by the linguists doing the analysis). The total phonemic inventory in languages varies from as few as 9–11 in
2466:(1935) stated "Such a definition is invalid because (1) we have no right to guess about the linguistic workings of an inaccessible 'mind', and (2) we can secure no advantage from such guesses. The linguistic processes of the 'mind' as such are quite simply unobservable; and introspection about linguistic processes is notoriously a fire in a wooden stove." This approach was opposed to that of
2470:, who gave an important role to native speakers' intuitions about where a particular sound or group of sounds fitted into a pattern. Using English as an example, Sapir argued that, despite the superficial appearance that this sound belongs to a group of three nasal consonant phonemes (/m/, /n/ and /ŋ/), native speakers feel that the velar nasal is really the sequence /. The theory of
2360:(1934), in his article "The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems" stated "given the sounds of a language, there are usually more than one possible way of reducing them to a set of phonemes, and these different systems or solutions are not simply correct or incorrect, but may be regarded only as being good or bad for various purposes". The linguist
1919:). The nasals are therefore not contrastive in these environments, and according to some theorists this makes it inappropriate to assign the nasal phones heard here to any one of the phonemes (even though, in this case, the phonetic evidence is unambiguous). Instead they may analyze these phonemes as belonging to a single archiphoneme, written something like
945:, one is a verb and is stressed on the second syllable, the other is a noun and stressed on the first syllable (without changing any of the individual sounds). The position of the stress distinguishes the words and so a full phonemic specification would include indication of the position of the stress:
2437:
in the spelling. It is also possible to treat
English long vowels and diphthongs as combinations of two vowel phonemes, with long vowels treated as a sequence of two short vowels, so that 'palm' would be represented as /paam/. English can thus be said to have around seven vowel phonemes, or even six
2347:
During the development of phoneme theory in the mid-20th century, phonologists were concerned not only with the procedures and principles involved in producing a phonemic analysis of the sounds of a given language, but also with the reality or uniqueness of the phonemic solution. These were central
898:
can serve as a near minimal pair. The reason why this is still acceptable proof of phonemehood is that there is nothing about the additional difference (/r/ vs. /l/) that can be expected to somehow condition a voicing difference for a single underlying postalveolar fricative. One can, however, find
788:
However, the absence of minimal pairs for a given pair of phones does not always mean that they belong to the same phoneme: they may be so dissimilar phonetically that it is unlikely for speakers to perceive them as the same sound. For example, English has no minimal pair for the sounds (as in
1822:
pattern is followed). In some cases even this may not provide an unambiguous answer. A description using the approach of underspecification would not attempt to assign to a specific phoneme in some or all of these cases, although it might be assigned to an archiphoneme, written something like
2372:
states that "English has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes" and that "there are 20 vowel phonemes in
Received Pronunciation, 14–16 in General American and 20–21 in Australian English". Although these figures are often quoted as fact, they actually reflect just one of many possible
807:
could be used to argue for their being allophones of the same phoneme. However, they are so dissimilar phonetically that they are considered separate phonemes. A case like this shows that sometimes it is the systemic distinctions and not the lexical context which are decisive in establishing
670:, transcribed for the aspirated form and for the unaspirated one. These different sounds are nonetheless considered to belong to the same phoneme, because if a speaker used one instead of the other, the meaning of the word would not change: using the aspirated form in
2001:, for example) would reveal which phoneme the flap represents, once it is known which morpheme is being used. However, other theorists would prefer not to make such a determination, and simply assign the flap in both cases to a single archiphoneme, written (for example)
564:, ordinary letters may be used to denote phonemes, although this approach is often imperfect, as pronunciations naturally shift in a language over time, rendering previous spelling systems outdated or no longer closely representative of the sounds of the language (see
811:
Phonologists have sometimes had recourse to "near minimal pairs" to show that speakers of the language perceive two sounds as significantly different even if no exact minimal pair exists in the lexicon. It is challenging to find a minimal pair to distinguish
English
698:. In some languages, however, and are perceived by native speakers as significantly different sounds, and substituting one for the other can change the meaning of a word. In those languages, therefore, the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example, in
2449:
position was that the analysis should be made purely on the basis of the sound elements and their distribution, with no reference to extraneous factors such as grammar, morphology or the intuitions of the native speaker; this position is strongly associated with
3639:
Bross, Fabian. 2015. "Chereme", in In: Hall, T. A. Pompino-Marschall, B. (ed.): Dictionaries of
Linguistics and Communication Science (Wörterbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft, WSK). Volume: Phonetics and Phonology. Berlin, New York: Mouton de
1774:
where some phonemes are not contrastive in certain environments. Some phonologists prefer not to specify a unique phoneme in such cases, since to do so would mean providing redundant or even arbitrary information – instead they use the technique of
2364:
referred to this argument within linguistics as "God's Truth" (i.e. the stance that a given language has an intrinsic structure to be discovered) vs. "hocus-pocus" (i.e. the stance that any proposed, coherent structure is as good as any other).
488:
realizations of those phonemes—each phoneme with its various allophones—constitute the surface form that is actually uttered and heard. Allophones each have technically different articulations inside particular words or particular
395:), yet they comprise a single phoneme in some other languages, such as Spanish, in which and for instance are merely interpreted by Spanish speakers as regional or dialect-specific ways of pronouncing the same word (
1225:, the one actually heard at a given occurrence of that phoneme may be dependent on the phonetic environment (surrounding sounds). Allophones that normally cannot appear in the same environment are said to be in
748:
for the two alternative phones in question (in this case, and ). The existence of minimal pairs is a common test to decide whether two phones represent different phonemes or are allophones of the same phoneme.
2574:) that further complicate the correspondence of letters to phonemes, although they need not affect the ability to predict the pronunciation from the spelling and vice versa, provided the rules are consistent.
674:
might sound odd, but the word would still be recognized. By contrast, some other sounds would cause a change in meaning if substituted: for example, substitution of the sound would produce the different word
2634:. Just as with spoken languages, when features are combined, they create phonemes. As in spoken languages, sign languages have minimal pairs which differ in only one phoneme. For instance, the ASL signs for
1022:
358:
2734:
to describe sign languages as true and full languages. Once a controversial idea, the position is now universally accepted in linguistics. Stokoe's terminology, however, has been largely abandoned.
541:; however, American speakers perceive or "hear" all of these sounds (usually with no conscious effort) as merely being allophones of a single phoneme: the one traditionally represented in the IPA as
645:
374:
2373:
analyses, and later in the
English Phonology article an alternative analysis is suggested in which some diphthongs and long vowels may be interpreted as comprising a short vowel linked to either
497:
distinctions. Alternatively, at least one of those articulations could be feasibly used in all such words with these words still being recognized as such by users of the language. An example in
626:
2703:, as the basic unit of signed communication, is functionally and psychologically equivalent to the phonemes of oral languages, and has been replaced by that term in the academic literature.
560:
characters. However, descriptions of particular languages may use different conventional symbols to represent the phonemes of those languages. For languages whose writing systems employ the
480:) of spoken sound variations that are nevertheless perceived as a single basic unit of sound by the ordinary native speakers of a given language. While phonemes are considered an abstract
549:
1455:
restrictions on which sequences of phonemes are possible and in which environments certain phonemes can occur. Phonemes that are significantly limited by such restrictions may be called
1020:
1574:, wherever it occurs, must unambiguously be assigned to one and only one phoneme. In other words, the mapping between phones and phonemes is required to be many-to-one rather than
1750:
Phonemes that are contrastive in certain environments may not be contrastive in all environments. In the environments where they do not contrast, the contrast is said to be
2356:: "There is only one accurate phonemic analysis for a given set of data", while others believed that different analyses, equally valid, could be made for the same data.
1301:
in its current sense, employing the word in his article "The phonetic structure of the
Sechuana Language". The concept of the phoneme was then elaborated in the works of
1021:
808:
phonemes. This implies that the phoneme should be defined as the smallest phonological unit which is contrastive at a lexical level or distinctive at a systemic level.
2221:
are close to average. Across all languages, the average number of consonant phonemes per language is about 22, while the average number of vowel phonemes is about 8.
2181:
has 14 vowel qualities, 12 of which may occur long or short, making 26 oral vowels, plus six nasalized vowels, long and short, making a total of 38 vowels; while
957:, word stress cannot have this function (its position is generally predictable) and so it is not phonemic (and therefore not usually indicated in dictionaries).
584:
A phoneme is a sound or a group of different sounds perceived to have the same function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example is the
280:
alone distinguish certain words from others, they are each examples of phonemes of the
English language. Specifically they are consonant phonemes, along with
2656:'s research, while still considered seminal, has been found not to characterize American Sign Language or other sign languages sufficiently. For instance,
472:
There are many views as to exactly what phonemes are and how a given language should be analyzed in phonemic terms. Generally, a phoneme is regarded as an
1363:
phonemes in oral language and many phonemes in sign languages. Features could be characterized in different ways: Jakobson and colleagues defined them in
3287:
2868:
Depending on the ability of the typesetter, this may be written vertically, an o over an a with a horizontal line (like a fraction) without the braces.
1229:. In other cases, the choice of allophone may be dependent on the individual speaker or other unpredictable factors. Such allophones are said to be in
171:
2519:), the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation in a given language may be highly distorted; this is the case with English, for example.
2474:
which emerged in the 1960s explicitly rejected the structuralist approach to phonology and favoured the mentalistic or cognitive view of Sapir.
781:(ASL), also have minimal pairs, differing only in (exactly) one of the signs' parameters: handshape, movement, location, palm orientation, and
2458:
claimed that it is possible to discover the phonemes of a language purely by examining the distribution of phonetic segments. Referring to
1993:
theory of linguistics, if a speaker applies such flapping consistently, morphological evidence (the pronunciation of the related forms
4393:
622:. Although most native speakers do not notice this, in most English dialects, the "c/k" sounds in these words are not identical: in
1969:
Another example from
English, but this time involving complete phonetic convergence as in the Russian example, is the flapping of
3657:. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo. Archived from
785:
or marker. A minimal pair may exist in the signed language if the basic sign stays the same, but one of the parameters changes.
4268:
3008:
Jones, D. (1917), The phonetic structure of the
Sechuana language, Transactions of the Philological Society 1917-20, pp. 99–106
2985:
A Greek-English
Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie.
2660:
are not included in Stokoe's classification. More sophisticated models of sign language phonology have since been proposed by
3878:
3784:
3766:
3748:
3727:
3245:
2918:
2393:
and Smith (1951), where all long vowels and diphthongs ("complex nuclei") are made up of a short vowel combined with either
4001:
3651:
1397:
By analogy with the phoneme, linguists have proposed other sorts of underlying objects, giving them names with the suffix
4474:
4408:
4196:
4191:
2384:
774:; since the words have different meanings, English-speakers must be conscious of the distinction between the two sounds.
1325:. Some structuralists (though not Sapir) rejected the idea of a cognitive or psycholinguistic function for the phoneme.
2068:
is a theoretical unit at a deeper level of abstraction than traditional phonemes, and is taken to be a unit from which
1718:
111:
3970:
3577:
3216:
1737:
130:
2646:
differ minimally with respect to location while handshape and movement are identical; location is thus contrastive.
1690:
83:
4544:
4333:
2784:
1145:
269:
153:
840:, yet it seems uncontroversial to claim that the two consonants are distinct phonemes. The two words 'pressure'
413:
to transcribe more precise pronunciation details, including allophones; they describe this basic distinction as
4206:
1697:
1675:
90:
68:
3628:
Phonological categories in Sign Language of the Netherlands. The role of phonetic implementation and iconicity
3299:
1946:. Archiphonemes are often notated with a capital letter within double virgules or pipes, as with the examples
216:
that is perceptually regarded by the speakers of a language as a single basic sound—a smallest possible
1522:
1255:
1359:, such features being the true minimal constituents of language. Features overlap each other in time, as do
3702:
2563:
2559:
2551:
2478:
2439:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2336:
2332:
2320:
2316:
2308:
2304:
2296:
2292:
2280:
2272:
2264:
2260:
2116:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2002:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1932:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1868:
1860:
1853:
1846:
1839:
1828:
1824:
1811:
1807:
1791:
1787:
1634:
1630:
1606:
1602:
1544:
1539:
occur only before a vowel, never at the end of a syllable (except in interpretations in which a word like
1536:
1532:
1526:
1515:
1503:
1497:
1466:
950:
946:
771:
767:
719:
715:
695:
684:
589:
542:
446:
442:
438:
392:
388:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
285:
281:
277:
273:
265:
261:
260:
have the exact same sequence of sounds, except for being different in their final consonant sounds: thus,
167:
163:
4484:
4398:
2779:
2622:
1704:
1567:
288:
is a vowel phoneme. The spelling of English does not strictly conform to its phonemes, so that the words
97:
2409:
for rhotic accents), each comprising two phonemes. The transcription for the vowel normally transcribed
4524:
4261:
3569:
2859:
There is allophonic variation of this tone. It may be realized in different ways, depending on context.
2754:
2627:
2376:
1803:
1294:
1226:
804:
526:
1593:
An example of the problems arising from the biuniqueness requirement is provided by the phenomenon of
399:: the Spanish word for "bread"). Such spoken variations of a single phoneme are known by linguists as
4519:
2749:
2523:
2382:
2374:
1924:
1759:
1278:
481:
364:
348:
3197:
1686:
1394:. Though not all scholars working on such languages use these terms, they are by no means obsolete.
79:
4221:
4216:
3994:
2711:
in language, is thus equivalent to phonology. The terms are not in use anymore. Instead, the terms
2612:
2592:
2522:
The correspondence between symbols and phonemes in alphabetic writing systems is not necessarily a
2463:
1815:
1671:
1344:. As a theoretical concept or model, though, it has been supplemented and even replaced by others.
1210:
64:
17:
2960:
580:
A simplified procedure for determining whether two sounds represent the same or different phonemes
4438:
4373:
4368:
4348:
4211:
2657:
1664:
1476:, occurs only at the end of a syllable, never at the beginning (in many other languages, such as
1266:
57:
2217:
uses a rather large set of 13 to 21 vowel phonemes, including diphthongs, although its 22 to 26
2072:
are built up. A morphophoneme within a morpheme can be expressed in different ways in different
4479:
4443:
4413:
4378:
4119:
2684:
2587:
2459:
2446:
2445:
In the same period there was disagreement about the correct basis for a phonemic analysis. The
2267:. Relatively few languages lack any of these consonants, although it does happen: for example,
2185:
achieves 31 pure vowels, not counting its additional variation by vowel length, by varying the
1598:
1579:
1368:
1329:
1246:
778:
506:
149:
3849:(72), Le Maître Phonétique, supplement (reprinted in E. Fudge (ed) Phonology, Penguin): 1–20,
3652:"Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf"
1375:'s system is a purely articulatory system apart from the use of the acoustic term 'sibilant'.
1233:, but allophones are still selected in a specific phonetic context, not the other way around.
4448:
4383:
4363:
4353:
4254:
4186:
4124:
3615:
Phonological representation of the sign: linearity and nonlinearity in American Sign Language
3455:
2531:
2527:
2241:
1314:
912:
350:
2566:. There may also exist spelling/pronunciation rules (such as those for the pronunciation of
1555:
below, particularly the example of the occurrence of the three English nasals before stops.
1551:
Some phonotactic restrictions can alternatively be analyzed as cases of neutralization. See
1282:
683:, and that sound must therefore be considered to represent a different phoneme (the phoneme
4529:
4453:
4343:
4114:
2804:
2744:
2731:
2490:
2471:
2368:
Different analyses of the English vowel system may be used to illustrate this. The article
2233:
1795:
924:
490:
2636:
8:
4358:
4201:
4034:
3987:
3261:
2814:
2642:
2105:
2092:
can be considered to be a single morphophoneme, which might be transcribed (for example)
1356:
534:
466:
406:
1265:, "sound made, utterance, thing spoken, speech, language") was reportedly first used by
576:
4539:
4534:
4500:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4403:
4338:
4237:
4070:
3948:
3920:
3850:
3524:
3398:
Chao, Yuen Ren (1934). "The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems".
3344:
3162:
3154:
2829:
2451:
2229:
2218:
2206:
2182:
2077:
1990:
1939:
1776:
1506:
occurs only at the beginning of a syllable, never at the end (a few languages, such as
1387:
1364:
1322:
1302:
920:
699:
561:
366:
2723:) are used to stress the linguistic similarities between signed and spoken languages.
2155:
2147:
2046:, other than its historical development, and it might be less ambiguously transcribed
1754:. In these positions it may become less clear which phoneme a given phone represents.
941:
is encountered in languages such as English. For example, there are two words spelled
899:
true minimal pairs for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ if less common words are considered. For example, '
4496:
4458:
4233:
4134:
3966:
3892:
3874:
3858:
3830:
3814:
3798:
3780:
3762:
3744:
3723:
3707:
3583:
3573:
3449:
3348:
3241:
3234:
3212:
3166:
2952:
2889:
2799:
2369:
2328:
2276:
2170:
1711:
1571:
1511:
1197:
1175:
1169:
1163:
1157:
1151:
710:
704:
666:
477:
224:
from another. All languages contains phonemes (or the spatial-gestural equivalent in
213:
104:
3478:
1477:
4388:
4139:
4090:
3940:
3912:
3516:
3430:
3334:
3204:
3146:
2571:
2390:
2361:
2324:
2288:
2214:
2202:
2194:
2151:
1485:
1481:
964:
872:
843:
829:
815:
782:
585:
498:
186:
2910:
2253:
1875:
boundary between them), only one of the nasals is possible in any given position:
1818:
factors (such as which of the vowels occurs in other forms of the words, or which
4433:
2894:
2794:
2649:
2547:
2512:
2312:
2284:
2225:
2210:
2198:
2174:
2059:
1835:
1799:
1507:
1493:
1372:
954:
410:
3658:
4286:
3192:
2957:
Some notes on phonemes and allophones in synchronic and diachronic descriptions
2774:
2727:
2661:
2653:
2583:
2166:
1864:
1360:
1348:
1230:
916:
3339:
3322:
3208:
3150:
2652:
are no longer used by researchers to describe the phonemes of sign languages;
935:), which, in many languages, change the meaning of words and so are phonemic.
347:
Sounds that are perceived as phonemes vary by languages and dialects, so that
4513:
4165:
3736:
3557:
2769:
2696:
2665:
2455:
2357:
2300:
2249:
2178:
2139:
1943:
1842:. In word-final position these all contrast, as shown by the minimal triplet
1767:
1610:
1489:
1310:
1306:
932:
518:
437:, can be represented phonemically and are written between slashes (including
225:
3834:
3827:
Phonology in Relation to Phonetics, in Malmberg, B. (ed) Manual of Phonetics
3587:
2244:
have six to nine tones (depending on how they are counted), and the Kam-Sui
1798:
syllables, but in unstressed syllables the contrast is lost, since both are
4277:
4024:
3862:
3818:
3802:
3697:
3693:
3137:
Dinnsen, Daniel (1985). "A Re-Examination of Phonological Neutralization".
2819:
2789:
2467:
2353:
2245:
2135:
1587:
1583:
1575:
1452:
1442:
1418:
1352:
1337:
1333:
1318:
900:
744:
510:
3896:
3711:
2526:. A phoneme might be represented by a combination of two or more letters (
4309:
2504:
1274:
1039:
1002:
984:
473:
237:
3854:
2026:
993:
975:
967:
in which a given syllable can have five different tonal pronunciations:
4325:
4294:
4010:
3841:
Jones, Daniel (1957), "The History and Meaning of the Term 'Phoneme'",
3561:
3158:
2824:
2759:
1819:
1678: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
691:
3952:
3924:
3528:
272:(IPA), a writing system that can be used to represent phonemes. Since
4314:
4149:
4055:
3203:. Vol. 1. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 315–317.
2809:
2692:
2602:
2349:
2237:
2190:
2186:
2143:
2073:
1954:
given above. Other ways the second of these has been notated include
1609:(in the appropriate environments) to be realized with the phone (an
1422:
1414:
1341:
1222:
714:, meaning "riddles". Icelandic, therefore, has two separate phonemes
494:
401:
241:
229:
217:
1783:
is an object sometimes used to represent an underspecified phoneme.
1653:
1529:
can occur immediately only before a vowel, never before a consonant.
1340:, and remains central to many accounts of the development of modern
1209:. Languages such as English do not have phonemic tone, but they use
46:
4299:
4170:
4105:
4080:
4065:
3944:
3916:
3520:
3434:
2834:
2631:
2516:
2500:
2496:
2069:
1872:
1827:, which reflects the two neutralized phonemes in this position, or
1763:
1594:
1448:
1409:
1403:
1379:
928:
656:
637:
485:
379:
are separate phonemes in English since they distinguish words like
159:
30:
This article is about the speech unit. For the JavaME library, see
2554:). Also a single letter may represent two phonemes, as in English
1806:). In order to assign such an instance of to one of the phonemes
4304:
4144:
4029:
2764:
2508:
2134:
All known languages use only a small subset of the many possible
2009:
1834:
A somewhat different example is found in English, with the three
1462:
In English, examples of such restrictions include the following:
553:
35:
31:
766:
illustrates that in English, and belong to separate phonemes,
565:
469:
allophone of /p/ (i.e., pronounced with an extra burst of air).
4246:
4095:
4075:
3053:
2839:
2268:
1786:
An example of neutralization is provided by the Russian vowels
1391:
1297:
became the first linguist in the western world to use the term
1103:
2484:
1613:). For example, the same flap sound may be heard in the words
1578:. The notion of biuniqueness was controversial among some pre-
1451:
to be built of any arbitrary sequences of phonemes. There are
1012:
890:
887:
861:
832:
201:
4129:
4060:
3979:
3366:. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
3362:
Moran, Steven; McCloy, Daniel; Wright, Richard, eds. (2014).
3077:
2582:
Sign language phonemes are bundles of articulation features.
2162:
2129:
1061:
660:, it is unaspirated. The words, therefore, contain different
557:
236:
phonemes. Phonemes are primarily studied under the branch of
233:
3566:
Linguistics of American Sign Language : an introduction
3089:
1766:
representations (surface forms). The term was introduced by
1640:
For further discussion of such cases, see the next section.
4039:
3323:"On the underlying representation of contour tones in Wobe"
3043:
3041:
2342:
1260:
1205:
The tone "phonemes" in such languages are sometimes called
884:
855:
445:, etc.), while nuances of exactly how a speaker pronounces
300:, regardless of spelling, all share the consonant phonemes
221:
195:
3889:
Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of Human Behavior
3127:, 1968, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston (pp. 170–202)
2515:
on orthography, and the use of foreign spellings for some
1355:) proposed that phonemes may be further decomposable into
1269:
in 1873, but it referred only to a speech sound. The term
858:
818:
571:
3065:
2586:
was the first scholar to describe the phonemic system of
2259:
The most common vowel system consists of the five vowels
449:
are phonetic and written between brackets, like for the
3931:
Twaddell, W.F. (March 1935). "On Defining the Phoneme".
3038:
2256:, has been claimed to have 14, though this is disputed.
1637:
in the second. This appears to contradict biuniqueness.
3016:
3014:
2034:. That is, there is no particular reason to transcribe
915:
phonemes such as vowels and consonants, there are also
3664:
on 23 November 2021 – via Save Our Deaf Schools.
3173:
2499:
writing systems. In such systems the written symbols (
2389:. The fullest exposition of this approach is found in
1938:
This latter type of analysis is often associated with
1371:
basis, though retaining some acoustic features, while
3957:(reprinted in Joos, M. Readings in Linguistics, 1957)
3363:
2248:
has nine to 15 tones by the same measure. One of the
1552:
198:
192:
3674:
Seegmiller, 2006. "Stokoe, William (1919–2000)", in
3507:
Sapir, Edward (1925). "Sound patterns in language".
3011:
881:
878:
852:
849:
158:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
3488:
1643:
1433:respectively) to applications outside linguistics.
875:
846:
484:for sound segments within words, the corresponding
308:, differing only by their internal vowel phonemes:
204:
189:
71:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3477:
3233:
3231:
3196:
3026:
2977:
2965:
2959:, in “Linguistik online”, 129/5, 2024, pp. 39–51,
2933:
2209:, on the other hand, has somewhere around 77, and
1034:Minimal set for phonemic tone in Mandarin Chinese
1017:with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese
742:(above) that differ only in one phone is called a
566:§ Correspondence between letters and phonemes
3808:
3454:. American Council of Learned Societies. p.
3361:
3083:
2080:rules). For example, the English plural morpheme
1629:, although it is intended to realize the phoneme
1285:during 1875–1895. The term used by these two was
708:, meaning "cheerful", but is the first sound of
324:is the notation for a sequence of four phonemes,
4511:
3101:
2990:
1977:in some American English (described above under
1382:has been used to indicate contrastive length or
803:), and the fact that they can be shown to be in
172:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
3279:
1378:In the description of some languages, the term
1236:
737:
731:
3903:Swadesh, M. (1934), "The Phonemic Principle",
2352:. Some writers took the position expressed by
1802:to the same sound, usually (for details, see
1390:are phonemic, the tone phonemes may be called
1367:terms, Chomsky and Halle used a predominantly
1309:(during the years 1926–1935), and in those of
4262:
3995:
3824:
3423:International Journal of American Linguistics
3071:
1436:
1216:
1213:for functions such as emphasis and attitude.
1136:
1129:
1122:
1115:
1108:
1094:
1087:
1080:
1073:
1066:
513:(or a similar glottalized sound) in the word
3692:
3556:
3225:
3185:
3121:Linguistic universals and linguistic change.
3047:
2695:and phoneme previously used in the study of
2495:Phonemes are considered to be the basis for
2433:, or /ar/ in a rhotic accent if there is an
2024:, as suggested by the alternative spellings
1582:linguists and was prominently challenged by
903:' and 'confusion' are a valid minimal pair.
3775:Gimson, A.C. (2008), Cruttenden, A. (ed.),
3717:
3602:A prosodic model of sign language phonology
3447:
3416:
3059:
2485:Correspondence between letters and phonemes
690:The above shows that in English, and are
4269:
4255:
4002:
3988:
3939:(1). Linguistic Society of America: 5–62.
3809:Jakobson, R.; Fant, G.; Halle, M. (1952),
3720:An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology
3475:
3285:
2911:"Minimal pairs in sign language phonology"
2130:Numbers of phonemes in different languages
1758:is a phenomenon in which a segment of the
1447:Languages do not generally allow words or
953:for the noun. In other languages, such as
906:
752:To take another example, the minimal pair
556:exist to represent IPA symbols using only
501:is that the sound spelled with the symbol
493:, yet these differences do not create any
3868:
3338:
3095:
2438:if schwa were treated as an allophone of
1738:Learn how and when to remove this message
927:, syllable boundaries and other forms of
228:), and all spoken languages include both
131:Learn how and when to remove this message
3930:
3676:Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
3020:
2650:Stokoe's terminology and notation system
2343:The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions
2100:, and which is realized phonemically as
575:
247:
34:. For the collection of phenotypes, see
3902:
3756:
3735:
3541:
3320:
3191:
3179:
3136:
1421:, who also generalized the concepts of
572:Assignment of speech sounds to phonemes
14:
4512:
3792:
3774:
3759:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
3741:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
3649:
3630:. PhD dissertation, Leiden University.
3494:
3286:Bearth, Thomas; Link, Christa (1980).
3032:
2983:Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R. (1940).
2479:English phonology#Controversial issues
2477:These topics are discussed further in
1174:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
655:
636:
421:. Thus, the pronunciation patterns of
409:in the IPA to transcribe phonemes but
220:unit—that helps distinguish one
4250:
3983:
3960:
3840:
3506:
3417:Householder, F.W. (1952). "Review of
3388:, University of Michigan Press, p. 64
3123:In: E. Bach & R.T. Harms (eds.),
2996:
2971:
2939:
2921:from the original on 14 February 2017
2908:
2507:(as well as other reasons, including
1989:might both be pronounced . Under the
1289:, the basic unit of what they called
1277:was developed by the Polish linguist
3886:
3397:
3240:. Pantheon Books. pp. 178–179.
3107:
2577:
2161:The number of phonemically distinct
1794:. These phonemes are contrasting in
1676:adding citations to reliable sources
1647:
1417:. The latter term was first used by
1328:Later, it was used and redefined in
340:, that together constitute the word
162:. For the distinction between ,
69:adding citations to reliable sources
40:
4475:International scientific vocabulary
4197:International scientific vocabulary
4192:English lexicology and lexicography
3544:Current Issues in Linguistic Theory
1590:in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
1386:of phonemes. In languages in which
919:features of pronunciation (such as
24:
3685:
3568:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.:
2596:(elements of location, from Latin
1831:, reflecting its unmerged values.
1137:
1130:
1123:
1116:
1109:
1018:
25:
4556:
3795:Methods in Structural Linguistics
3419:Methods in structural linguistics
2902:
2726:The terms were coined in 1960 by
2620:). Some researchers also discern
2535:
2263:. The most common consonants are
2053:
1978:
1570:phonemics. It means that a given
1221:When a phoneme has more than one
641:, the sound is aspirated, but in
4495:
4276:
4232:
3825:Jakobson, R.; Halle, M. (1968),
3811:Preliminaries to Speech Analysis
1652:
1644:Neutralization and archiphonemes
1553:Neutralization and archiphonemes
1001:
992:
983:
974:
871:
842:
828:
814:
725:
592:, which occurs in words such as
185:
45:
3668:
3643:
3633:
3620:
3607:
3594:
3550:
3535:
3500:
3469:
3451:An Outline of English Structure
3441:
3410:
3391:
3378:
3355:
3314:
3254:
3199:Handbook of Amazonian Languages
3130:
3125:Universals in linguistic theory
3113:
3084:Jakobson, Fant & Halle 1952
2862:
2785:International Phonetic Alphabet
2550:(both representing the phoneme
2076:of that morpheme (according to
2008:Further mergers in English are
1663:needs additional citations for
1558:
963:are found in languages such as
270:International Phonetic Alphabet
154:International Phonetic Alphabet
56:needs additional citations for
4394:Language-for-specific-purposes
4207:Lexicographic information cost
4009:
3965:, Cambridge University Press,
3718:Clark, J.; Yallop, C. (1995),
3448:Trager, G.; Smith, H. (1951).
3327:Studies in African Linguistics
3292:Studies in African Linguistics
3002:
2945:
2895:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
2882:
2853:
1814:, it is necessary to consider
1762:is not realized in any of its
548:For computer-typing purposes,
13:
1:
3321:Singler, John Victor (1984).
3266:www.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de
3236:Don't Sleep, there are Snakes
2875:
2142:can produce, and, because of
1413:. These are sometimes called
3797:, Chicago University Press,
3777:The Pronunciation of English
3703:The Sound Pattern of English
3476:Bloomfield, Leonard (1933).
3298:(2): 147–207. Archived from
2590:. He identified the bundles
2511:differences, the effects of
2462:definitions of the phoneme,
2173:. At the other extreme, the
2165:can be as low as two, as in
1566:is a requirement of classic
1261:
1237:Background and related ideas
1013:
7:
4485:List of online dictionaries
3761:(3rd ed.), Cambridge,
3743:(2nd ed.), Cambridge,
3722:(2nd ed.), Blackwell,
3650:Stokoe, William C. (1960).
3626:Kooij, Els van der (2002).
3232:Everett, Daniel L. (2008).
2780:Initial-stress-derived noun
2737:
2084:appearing in words such as
1770:(1968), and contrasts with
1500:can appear word-initially).
320:, respectively. Similarly,
10:
4561:
3570:Gallaudet University Press
2755:Complementary distribution
2688:
2671:
2488:
2442:or of other short vowels.
2201:each have just seven, and
2057:
1933://lɪNp//,//lɪNt//,//lɪNk//
1925:underlying representations
1804:vowel reduction in Russian
1440:
1437:Restrictions on occurrence
1250:
1227:complementary distribution
1217:Distribution of allophones
805:complementary distribution
777:Signed languages, such as
29:
4493:
4467:
4323:
4284:
4230:
4179:
4158:
4104:
4048:
4017:
3873:(5th ed.), Thomson,
3340:10.32473/sal.v15i1.107520
3288:"The tone puzzle of Wobe"
3209:10.1515/9783110850819.200
3195:(1 July 1986). "Pirahã".
3151:10.1017/s0022226700010276
3072:Jakobson & Halle 1968
2750:Alternation (linguistics)
2524:one-to-one correspondence
1772:contextual neutralization
1760:underlying representation
1279:Jan Baudouin de Courtenay
1181:
1144:
1102:
1095:
1088:
1081:
1074:
1067:
1060:
1038:
702:, is the first sound of
491:environments within words
482:underlying representation
465:, which in English is an
4222:Specialized lexicography
3779:(7th ed.), Hodder,
3600:Brentari, Diane (1998).
3048:Chomsky & Halle 1968
2987:Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2846:
2691:"hand") are synonyms of
2224:Some languages, such as
2197:and the Papuan language
1601:. This may cause either
1347:Some linguists (such as
212:) is any set of similar
4545:Linguistics terminology
4212:Linguistic prescription
3757:Crystal, David (2010),
3613:Sandler, Wendy (1989).
3262:"UPSID Nr. of segments"
3060:Clark & Yallop 1995
1756:Absolute neutralization
1267:A. Dufriche-Desgenettes
907:Suprasegmental phonemes
150:phonetic transcriptions
27:Basic unit of phonology
4480:List of lexicographers
4120:Hypernymy and hyponymy
3869:Ladefoged, P. (2006),
3542:Chomsky, Noam (1964).
3421:by Zellig S. Harris".
3139:Journal of Linguistics
2626:(orientation), facial
2119:in other cases (as in
1871:(provided there is no
1633:in the first word and
1599:North American English
1330:generative linguistics
1026:
779:American Sign Language
738:
732:
709:
703:
581:
147:This article contains
4409:Monolingual learner's
4187:Controlled vocabulary
4125:Meronymy and holonymy
3871:A Course in Phonetics
2668:, and Van der Kooij.
2606:(the handshape, from
2154:to as many as 141 in
1315:Ferdinand de Saussure
1025:
730:A pair of words like
579:
537:alveolar plosive in
248:Examples and notation
3961:Wells, J.C. (1982),
3843:Le Maître Phonétique
2805:Phonemic orthography
2745:Alphabetic principle
2732:Gallaudet University
2491:Phonemic orthography
2472:generative phonology
2106:voiceless consonants
1863:. However, before a
1672:improve this article
694:of a single phoneme
65:improve this article
4449:Spelling dictionary
4359:Defining vocabulary
4202:Lexicographic error
3887:Pike, K.L. (1967),
3793:Harris, Z. (1951),
3302:on 24 February 2021
3098:, pp. 268–276.
2815:Phonological change
2721:distinctive feature
2658:non-manual features
2544:⟨sch⟩
2265:/p/,/t/,/k/,/m/,/n/
2261:/i/,/e/,/a/,/o/,/u/
2240:and several of the
2228:, have no phonemic
1523:non-rhotic dialects
1457:restricted phonemes
1332:, most famously by
1035:
931:, nasalization and
4501:Linguistics portal
4334:Advanced learner's
4238:Linguistics portal
3963:Accents of English
3706:, Harper and Row,
3384:Pike, K.L. (1947)
3193:Everett, Daniel L.
2898:. Merriam-Webster.
2707:, as the study of
2616:(the motion, from
2540:⟨sh⟩
2452:Leonard Bloomfield
2078:morphophonological
1991:generative grammar
1981:). Here the words
1940:Nikolai Trubetzkoy
1777:underspecification
1518:syllable-finally).
1425:description (from
1323:Leonard Bloomfield
1305:and others of the
1303:Nikolai Trubetzkoy
1283:Mikołaj Kruszewski
1033:
1027:
582:
562:phonemic principle
252:The English words
4525:Reading (process)
4507:
4506:
4244:
4243:
4135:Lexical semantics
3880:978-1-4282-3126-9
3829:, North-Holland,
3786:978-0-340-95877-3
3768:978-0-521-73650-3
3750:978-0-521-55967-6
3729:978-0-631-19452-1
3247:978-0-375-42502-8
2953:Fausto Cercignani
2578:In sign languages
2568:⟨c⟩
2556:⟨x⟩
2435:⟨r⟩
2413:would instead be
2370:English phonology
2362:F. W. Householder
2277:standard Hawaiian
2242:Kam–Sui languages
1748:
1747:
1740:
1722:
1259:
1203:
1202:
1198:question particle
1023:
478:equivalence class
141:
140:
133:
115:
16:(Redirected from
4552:
4520:Learning to read
4499:
4399:Machine-readable
4271:
4264:
4257:
4248:
4247:
4236:
4140:Semantic network
4004:
3997:
3990:
3981:
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3376:
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3371:
3364:"PHOIBLE Online"
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2215:English language
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2103:
2099:
2095:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2004:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1934:
1929:limp, lint, link
1923:, and state the
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1905:limp, lint, link
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1894:
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1656:
1648:
1636:
1632:
1608:
1604:
1546:
1538:
1534:
1528:
1517:
1505:
1499:
1468:
1281:and his student
1264:
1254:
1252:
1177:
1171:
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1140:
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1112:
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1083:
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1076:
1070:
1069:
1036:
1032:
1024:
1016:
1005:
996:
987:
978:
965:Mandarin Chinese
952:
948:
897:
896:
893:
892:
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863:
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783:nonmanual signal
773:
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659:
654:
653:
652:
650:
640:
635:
634:
633:
631:
591:
544:
527:alveolar plosive
499:American English
457:versus for the
448:
444:
440:
405:. Linguists use
394:
390:
378:
377:
376:
370:
362:
361:
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4287:reference works
4280:
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4240:
4226:
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4013:
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3686:Further reading
3683:
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3415:
3411:
3400:Academia Sinica
3396:
3392:
3383:
3379:
3369:
3367:
3360:
3356:
3319:
3315:
3305:
3303:
3284:
3280:
3270:
3268:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3248:
3230:
3226:
3219:
3190:
3186:
3178:
3174:
3135:
3131:
3118:
3114:
3106:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3082:
3078:
3070:
3066:
3058:
3054:
3046:
3039:
3031:
3027:
3019:
3012:
3007:
3003:
2995:
2991:
2982:
2978:
2970:
2966:
2950:
2946:
2938:
2934:
2924:
2922:
2907:
2903:
2888:
2887:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2795:Morphophonology
2740:
2674:
2580:
2567:
2555:
2543:
2539:
2513:morphophonology
2493:
2487:
2434:
2345:
2138:that the human
2132:
2062:
2060:Morphophonology
2056:
2042:rather than as
1744:
1733:
1727:
1724:
1681:
1679:
1669:
1657:
1646:
1561:
1543:is analyzed as
1445:
1439:
1291:psychophonetics
1239:
1219:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1019:
1008:
1007:
1006:
998:
997:
989:
988:
980:
979:
939:Phonemic stress
909:
874:
870:
869:and 'pleasure'
845:
841:
831:
827:
817:
813:
728:
646:
643:
642:
627:
624:
623:
574:
411:square brackets
372:
371:
356:
355:
250:
188:
184:
177:
176:
175:
137:
126:
120:
117:
74:
72:
62:
50:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4558:
4548:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4505:
4504:
4494:
4491:
4490:
4488:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4471:
4469:
4465:
4464:
4462:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4330:
4328:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4291:
4289:
4282:
4281:
4274:
4273:
4266:
4259:
4251:
4242:
4241:
4231:
4228:
4227:
4225:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4183:
4181:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4173:
4168:
4162:
4160:
4156:
4155:
4153:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4111:
4109:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4014:
4007:
4006:
3999:
3992:
3984:
3977:
3976:
3971:
3958:
3945:10.2307/522070
3928:
3917:10.2307/409603
3911:(2): 117–129,
3900:
3884:
3879:
3866:
3838:
3822:
3806:
3790:
3785:
3772:
3767:
3754:
3749:
3737:Crystal, David
3733:
3728:
3715:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3681:
3680:
3667:
3642:
3632:
3619:
3606:
3593:
3578:
3558:Clayton, Valli
3549:
3534:
3521:10.2307/409004
3499:
3487:
3468:
3440:
3435:10.1086/464181
3409:
3390:
3377:
3354:
3313:
3278:
3253:
3246:
3224:
3217:
3184:
3182:, p. 173.
3172:
3129:
3119:Kiparsky, P.,
3112:
3100:
3096:Ladefoged 2006
3088:
3076:
3064:
3052:
3037:
3025:
3010:
3001:
2989:
2976:
2964:
2944:
2932:
2901:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2861:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2775:Free variation
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2728:William Stokoe
2697:sign languages
2673:
2670:
2654:William Stokoe
2579:
2576:
2542:in English or
2489:Main article:
2486:
2483:
2344:
2341:
2205:has only six.
2131:
2128:
2058:Main article:
2055:
2054:Morphophonemes
2052:
2020:conflate with
1746:
1745:
1660:
1658:
1651:
1645:
1642:
1560:
1557:
1549:
1548:
1530:
1519:
1501:
1441:Main article:
1438:
1435:
1361:suprasegmental
1349:Roman Jakobson
1311:structuralists
1238:
1235:
1231:free variation
1218:
1215:
1201:
1200:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1134:
1127:
1120:
1113:
1106:
1100:
1099:
1092:
1085:
1078:
1071:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1010:
1009:
1000:
999:
991:
990:
982:
981:
973:
972:
971:
970:
969:
961:Phonemic tones
949:for the verb,
917:suprasegmental
908:
905:
796:) and (as in
727:
724:
657:[skɪl]
638:[kʰɪt]
573:
570:
249:
246:
226:sign languages
170:⟩, see
146:
145:
144:
139:
138:
53:
51:
44:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4557:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4517:
4515:
4502:
4498:
4492:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4466:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4329:
4327:
4322:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4292:
4290:
4288:
4283:
4279:
4272:
4267:
4265:
4260:
4258:
4253:
4252:
4249:
4239:
4235:
4229:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4178:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4166:Function word
4164:
4163:
4161:
4157:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4103:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4005:
4000:
3998:
3993:
3991:
3986:
3985:
3982:
3974:
3972:0-521-29719-2
3968:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3929:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3901:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3885:
3882:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3839:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3823:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3807:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3791:
3788:
3782:
3778:
3773:
3770:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3752:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3731:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3698:Halle, Morris
3695:
3694:Chomsky, Noam
3691:
3690:
3677:
3671:
3660:
3653:
3646:
3636:
3629:
3623:
3616:
3610:
3603:
3597:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3579:9781563680977
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3553:
3545:
3538:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3515:(37): 37–51.
3514:
3510:
3503:
3496:
3491:
3484:. Henry Holt.
3482:
3481:
3472:
3457:
3453:
3452:
3444:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3413:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3387:
3381:
3365:
3358:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3317:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3282:
3267:
3263:
3257:
3249:
3243:
3238:
3237:
3228:
3220:
3218:9783110102574
3214:
3210:
3206:
3201:
3200:
3194:
3188:
3181:
3176:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3145:(2): 265–79.
3144:
3140:
3133:
3126:
3122:
3116:
3109:
3104:
3097:
3092:
3085:
3080:
3073:
3068:
3061:
3056:
3049:
3044:
3042:
3034:
3029:
3022:
3021:Twaddell 1935
3017:
3015:
3005:
2998:
2993:
2986:
2980:
2974:, p. 48.
2973:
2968:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2948:
2942:, p. 44.
2941:
2936:
2920:
2916:
2915:handspeak.com
2912:
2905:
2897:
2896:
2891:
2885:
2881:
2865:
2856:
2852:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2770:Emic and etic
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2686:
2685:Ancient Greek
2682:
2678:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2624:
2619:
2615:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2575:
2573:
2558:representing
2549:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2520:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2492:
2482:
2480:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2456:Zellig Harris
2453:
2448:
2447:structuralist
2443:
2392:
2386:
2378:
2371:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2358:Yuen Ren Chao
2355:
2351:
2340:
2330:
2326:
2314:
2311:, colloquial
2307:and a simple
2302:
2290:
2286:
2278:
2270:
2257:
2255:
2251:
2250:Kru languages
2247:
2246:Dong language
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2189:. As regards
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2140:speech organs
2137:
2127:
2125:
2124:
2114:
2113:
2107:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2066:morphophoneme
2061:
2051:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2011:
2006:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1967:
1945:
1944:Prague school
1941:
1936:
1930:
1926:
1906:
1874:
1866:
1859:
1852:
1845:
1837:
1832:
1821:
1817:
1816:morphological
1805:
1801:
1797:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1768:Paul Kiparsky
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1742:
1739:
1731:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1692:
1689: –
1688:
1684:
1683:Find sources:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1661:This section
1659:
1655:
1650:
1649:
1641:
1638:
1628:
1626:
1620:
1618:
1612:
1611:alveolar flap
1600:
1596:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1568:structuralist
1565:
1556:
1554:
1542:
1531:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1423:emic and etic
1420:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1307:Prague School
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1257:
1248:
1247:Ancient Greek
1244:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1128:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1093:
1086:
1079:
1072:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1015:
1011:The syllable
1004:
995:
986:
977:
968:
966:
962:
958:
956:
944:
940:
936:
934:
933:vowel harmony
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
904:
902:
895:
866:
837:
823:
809:
806:
802:
801:
795:
793:
786:
784:
780:
775:
765:
763:
758:
756:
750:
747:
746:
740:
734:
726:Minimal pairs
723:
713:
712:
707:
706:
701:
693:
688:
682:
680:
673:
669:
668:
663:
662:speech sounds
658:
651:
649:
639:
632:
630:
621:
619:
613:
611:
605:
603:
598:
596:
587:
578:
569:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
546:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
519:alveolar flap
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
487:
483:
479:
476:of a set (or
475:
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
403:
398:
386:
382:
375:
368:
359:
352:
345:
343:
299:
295:
291:
271:
259:
255:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
214:speech sounds
209:
182:
173:
161:
157:
155:
151:
143:
135:
132:
124:
113:
110:
106:
103:
99:
96:
92:
89:
85:
82: –
81:
77:
76:Find sources:
70:
66:
60:
59:
54:This article
52:
48:
43:
42:
37:
33:
19:
4439:Single-field
4374:Etymological
4369:Encyclopedic
4349:Biographical
4326:dictionaries
4278:Lexicography
4085:
4025:Lexical item
3962:
3936:
3932:
3908:
3904:
3888:
3870:
3846:
3842:
3826:
3810:
3794:
3776:
3758:
3740:
3719:
3701:
3675:
3670:
3659:the original
3645:
3635:
3627:
3622:
3614:
3609:
3604:. MIT Press.
3601:
3596:
3565:
3552:
3543:
3537:
3512:
3508:
3502:
3497:, p. 5.
3490:
3479:
3471:
3459:. Retrieved
3450:
3443:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3412:
3403:
3399:
3393:
3385:
3380:
3368:. Retrieved
3357:
3333:(1): 59–75.
3330:
3326:
3316:
3304:. Retrieved
3300:the original
3295:
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3265:
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3180:Crystal 2010
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2914:
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2820:Phonotactics
2790:Minimal pair
2725:
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2468:Edward Sapir
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2354:Kenneth Pike
2348:concerns of
2346:
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1982:
1979:Biuniqueness
1968:
1937:
1928:
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1820:inflectional
1785:
1781:archiphoneme
1780:
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1751:
1749:
1734:
1725:
1715:
1708:
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1694:
1682:
1670:Please help
1665:verification
1662:
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1624:
1622:
1616:
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1592:
1588:Noam Chomsky
1584:Morris Halle
1576:many-to-many
1564:Biuniqueness
1563:
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1559:Biuniqueness
1550:
1540:
1472:
1470:
1461:
1456:
1446:
1443:Phonotactics
1430:
1426:
1419:Kenneth Pike
1408:
1402:
1398:
1396:
1383:
1377:
1369:articulatory
1353:Morris Halle
1346:
1338:Morris Halle
1334:Noam Chomsky
1327:
1319:Edward Sapir
1298:
1295:Daniel Jones
1290:
1286:
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1242:
1240:
1220:
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745:minimal pair
743:
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601:
600:
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511:glottal stop
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414:
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178:
166:and ⟨
148:
142:
127:
121:October 2020
118:
108:
101:
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87:
75:
63:Please help
58:verification
55:
4530:Orthography
4444:Specialized
4414:Multi-field
4379:Explanatory
4310:Phrase book
4018:Major terms
3562:Lucas, Ceil
3495:Harris 1951
3461:30 December
3062:, chpt. 11.
3033:Harris 1951
2925:13 February
2909:Handspeak.
2505:orthography
2460:mentalistic
2303:lacks both
2104:after most
1752:neutralized
1453:phonotactic
1275:abstraction
1040:Tone number
507:articulated
505:is usually
474:abstraction
238:linguistics
4514:Categories
4384:Historical
4364:Electronic
4354:Conceptual
4295:Dictionary
4217:Morphology
4011:Lexicology
3891:, Mouton,
3271:22 January
2997:Jones 1957
2972:Wells 1982
2940:Wells 1982
2876:References
2760:Diaphoneme
2628:expression
2608:designator
2497:alphabetic
2219:consonants
2193:phonemes,
2150:and 11 in
2074:allomorphs
1698:newspapers
1580:generative
1415:emic units
1401:, such as
1211:intonation
692:allophones
495:meaningful
402:allophones
91:newspapers
4540:Phonology
4535:Phonetics
4454:Sub-field
4344:Bilingual
4324:Types of
4315:Thesaurus
4285:Types of
4159:Functions
4150:Troponymy
4108:relations
3678:, 2nd ed.
3546:. Mouton.
3429:: 260–8.
3406:: 363–97.
3386:Phonemics
3370:5 January
3349:170335215
3306:5 January
3167:145227467
3108:Pike 1967
2890:"phoneme"
2810:Phonology
2713:phonology
2705:Cherology
2693:phonology
2677:Cherology
2618:signation
2517:loanwords
2501:graphemes
2429:would be
2421:would be
2350:phonology
2238:Cantonese
2191:consonant
2187:phonation
2177:language
2144:allophony
2115:) and as
2070:morphemes
2048://ˈsBɪn//
1838:phonemes
1687:"Phoneme"
1449:syllables
1373:Ladefoged
1342:phonology
1256:romanized
1241:The term
1223:allophone
951:/ˈɪnvaɪt/
947:/ɪnˈvaɪt/
913:segmental
901:Confucian
700:Icelandic
535:aspirated
533:, and an
467:aspirated
242:phonology
240:known as
230:consonant
80:"Phoneme"
4300:Glossary
4171:Headword
4115:Antonymy
4106:Semantic
4081:Morpheme
4066:Grapheme
4049:Elements
3933:Language
3905:Language
3855:44705495
3835:13223685
3739:(1997),
3700:(1968),
3640:Gruyter.
3617:. Foris.
3588:57352333
3564:(2000).
3509:Language
3480:Language
2919:Archived
2835:Triphone
2738:See also
2709:cheremes
2662:Brentari
2632:mouthing
2538:), like
2532:trigraph
2464:Twaddell
2329:Quileute
2323:, while
2236:, while
2213:81. The
2171:Arrernte
2016:, where
2010:plosives
1903:, as in
1873:morpheme
1867:such as
1796:stressed
1764:phonetic
1728:May 2019
1595:flapping
1514:, allow
1512:Romanian
1494:Setswana
1469:, as in
1431:phonetic
1427:phonemic
1410:grapheme
1404:morpheme
1384:duration
1380:chroneme
1365:acoustic
1357:features
929:juncture
911:Besides
588:phoneme
568:below).
552:such as
486:phonetic
419:phonetic
415:phonemic
284:, while
218:phonetic
164:/ /
160:Help:IPA
18:Phonemic
4429:Rhyming
4424:Reverse
4419:Picture
4404:Medical
4339:Anagram
4305:Lexicon
4145:Synonym
4086:Phoneme
4056:Chereme
4030:Lexicon
3863:4550377
3819:6492928
3813:, MIT,
3803:2232282
3159:4175789
2765:Diphone
2717:phoneme
2701:chereme
2681:chereme
2672:Chereme
2666:Sandler
2610:), and
2572:Italian
2528:digraph
2509:dialect
2325:Rotokas
2289:Tlingit
2203:Rotokas
2195:Puinave
2152:Rotokas
2108:(as in
2044:/ˈsbɪn/
2040:/ˈspɪn/
2032:sghetti
2022:/b,d,ɡ/
2018:/p,t,k/
1987:bedding
1983:betting
1960:{m,n,ŋ}
1956:|m-n-ŋ|
1942:of the
1899:before
1887:before
1879:before
1869:/p,t,k/
1840:/m,n,ŋ/
1800:reduced
1712:scholar
1486:Tagalog
1482:Swahili
1392:tonemes
1299:phoneme
1271:phoneme
1262:phōnēma
1258::
1243:phonème
1207:tonemes
586:English
554:X-SAMPA
550:systems
509:with a
433:versus
425:versus
417:versus
407:slashes
391:versus
268:in the
264:versus
181:phoneme
152:in the
105:scholar
36:phenome
32:phoneME
4459:Visual
4180:Fields
4096:Sememe
4076:Lexeme
4061:Glyphs
3969:
3953:522070
3951:
3925:409603
3923:
3897:308042
3895:
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3712:317361
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3529:409004
3527:
3347:
3244:
3215:
3165:
3157:
2961:online
2840:Viseme
2830:Toneme
2825:Sphoṭa
2683:(from
2643:mother
2637:father
2598:tabula
2584:Stokoe
2548:German
2405:(plus
2391:Trager
2315:lacks
2313:Samoan
2285:Mohawk
2279:lacks
2271:lacks
2269:Arabic
2234:stress
2226:French
2199:Tauade
2163:vowels
2148:Pirahã
2136:sounds
2027:sketti
2012:after
1964://n*//
1931:to be
1917:/lɪŋk/
1913:/lɪnt/
1909:/lɪmp/
1895:, and
1714:
1707:
1700:
1693:
1685:
1508:Arabic
1492:, and
1321:, and
1287:fonema
1273:as an
1251:φώνημα
1245:(from
1185:mother
1182:Gloss
1104:Pinyin
955:French
943:invite
925:stress
667:phones
523:dating
342:pushed
336:, and
322:/pʊʃt/
316:, and
296:, and
168:
107:
100:
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4468:Other
4389:Idiom
4130:Idiom
4071:Lemma
4035:Lexis
3949:JSTOR
3921:JSTOR
3851:JSTOR
3662:(PDF)
3655:(PDF)
3525:JSTOR
3345:S2CID
3163:S2CID
3155:JSTOR
2847:Notes
2800:Phone
2331:lack
2291:lack
2211:Ubykh
2175:Bantu
2167:Ubykh
2094://z//
2003://D//
1952://N//
1948://A//
1921://N//
1861:/sʌŋ/
1854:/sʌn/
1847:/sʌm/
1836:nasal
1829:{a|o}
1825://A//
1779:. An
1719:JSTOR
1705:books
1572:phone
1545:/bɔj/
1478:Māori
1388:tones
1313:like
1194:scold
1191:horse
1062:Hanzi
826:from
739:gátur
733:kátur
711:gátur
705:kátur
672:skill
664:, or
648:skill
558:ASCII
531:stick
525:, an
517:, an
429:, or
393:/sɪŋ/
389:/sɪn/
383:from
369:]
365:[
353:]
349:[
266:/sɛt/
262:/sɛl/
234:vowel
156:(IPA)
112:JSTOR
98:books
4434:Rime
4091:Seme
4040:Word
3967:ISBN
3893:OCLC
3875:ISBN
3859:OCLC
3831:OCLC
3815:OCLC
3799:OCLC
3781:ISBN
3763:ISBN
3745:ISBN
3724:ISBN
3708:OCLC
3584:OCLC
3574:ISBN
3463:2017
3404:IV.4
3372:2019
3308:2019
3273:2022
3242:ISBN
3213:ISBN
2951:See
2927:2017
2719:(or
2715:and
2699:. A
2689:χείρ
2679:and
2640:and
2564:/ks/
2560:/gz/
2536:etc.
2431:/ah/
2427:/ɑː/
2425:and
2423:/aw/
2419:/aʊ/
2415:/aj/
2411:/aɪ/
2335:and
2327:and
2319:and
2301:Hupa
2295:and
2287:and
2254:Wobé
2230:tone
2207:!Xóõ
2183:!Xóõ
2179:Ngwe
2169:and
2090:dogs
2088:and
2086:cats
2036:spin
2030:and
1997:and
1985:and
1973:and
1962:and
1950:and
1865:stop
1858:sung
1810:and
1790:and
1691:news
1621:and
1586:and
1535:and
1510:and
1490:Thai
1429:and
1407:and
1399:-eme
1351:and
1336:and
1188:hemp
923:and
921:tone
770:and
759:and
736:and
718:and
716:/kʰ/
455:spit
385:sing
363:and
304:and
298:gnat
290:knot
276:and
256:and
254:cell
232:and
222:word
84:news
3941:doi
3913:doi
3517:doi
3431:doi
3335:doi
3205:doi
3147:doi
2730:at
2630:or
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2603:dez
2600:),
2593:tab
2588:ASL
2570:in
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2552:/ʃ/
2546:in
2440:/ʌ/
2407:/r/
2403:/h/
2401:or
2399:/w/
2395:/j/
2381:or
2337:/n/
2333:/m/
2321:/n/
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2309:/k/
2305:/p/
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2232:or
2156:ǃXũ
2126:).
2121:dog
2117:/z/
2110:cat
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2098:|z|
2096:or
2038:as
2014:/s/
1999:bed
1995:bet
1975:/d/
1971:/t/
1927:of
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1897:/ŋ/
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1851:sun
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312:,
310:/ɒ/
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