326:
replaced by the pidgin. From the social aspect, some of the
Aboriginal people became functioning members in the colony’s working class because of their knowledge of the land and labour. In addition, with the information provided by the Aboriginal people, the settlers found building materials, and they built residences in water-rich and fertile areas. In the settlement, Aboriginal people offered assistance with chopping wood, fishing and tracking escaped convicts. With the help of the Aboriginal people, the settlers built permanent sites of residence, and the Aboriginal people gained irreplaceable positions in the
317:
well-respected person in both the colonial and
Aboriginal communities. The settlers needed Bennelong’s knowledge of Aboriginal culture, food, technology and the environment, while the Aboriginal people consulted him when they traded with the settlers. This privilege allowed him to become the head of the Aboriginal coterie, and he enjoyed social and material benefits from his friendship with Philip.
246:
could no longer provide food for the
Aboriginal people, and they became increasingly dependent on the settlers for imported goods. Some Aboriginal people started to offer services to the settlers, including guidance and knowledge about the environment. Thus, in exchange for resources, they played an
325:
From the linguistic aspect, Aboriginal people who acted as translators and guides in the Sydney area showed a notable ability to communicate with
English settlers using Port Jackson Pidgin English. Furthermore, the significance of learning Aboriginal vernacular language decreased and was eventually
193:
from the surrounding areas to escape deprivation at the hands of
European settlers. As the Aboriginal Australians who came to seek refuge at the Roper River Mission spoke different languages, there grew a need for a shared communication system to develop, and it was this that created the conditions
688:
Port
Jackson Pidgin English was the main means of communication between the settlers and the Aboriginal people in early colonial times. It provided a channel for intercultural communication. It is also important in terms of linguistics because it formed a basis for the development of Australian
533:
It is also intriguing to note that despite its borrowing of
English verbs, Port Jackson Pidgin English applies linguistic strategies that are different. Therefore, the use or meaning of verbs in Port Jackson Pidgin English cannot be presumed based solely on knowledge of English. In addition to
287:
between the two communities, he failed to learn about the
Aboriginal culture and history or maintain regular and friendly communication. Therefore, he made a plan to capture an Aboriginal person to learn English, help the settlers acquire the Aboriginal language and play as a cultural catalyst
316:
well after being captured by Philip. His language abilities not only allowed the settlers to gain more knowledge about the
Aboriginal language and culture but also accelerated the cross-cultural interactions between the two communities. Being able to speak two languages, Bennelong became a
233:
There are two major factors that facilitated the forming of Port
Jackson Pidgin English. The first is that environmental shifts occurred on the land. After the English settlers arrived at Port Jackson in January 1788, the lifestyles of the
282:
with Aboriginal people despite their hostility towards the settlers. He also controlled the convicts to prevent them from ‘taking advantage of or mistreating Aboriginal people’. However, due to the absence of a common
292:. He not only learned English and the culture of the settlers, but he also offered knowledge about the Aboriginal language for the settlers. He marked the starting point of a stable communication and accelerated the
680:
is an interrogative word that means 'when'. Interestingly, Port Jackson Pidgin English has borrowed considerably from English verbs and lexicon but only a small number from Aboriginal languages.
558:, which means 'If you like Aboriginal people, master, you give cornmeal; you give tomahawks and tobacco'. In that case, the verb's transitivity is marked by the suffix '-it'. In addition,
366:
sentence structure as English. The linguistic feature of Port Jackson Pidgin English observed in the 18th century was mainly lexical, and in the 19th century, the pidgin started to acquire
221:. By 1900 PJPE had developed into Northern Territory Pidgin English (NTPE) was widespread and well understood. Then by 1908 creolizing into Australian Kriol and by the mid-1980s,
978:
Simpson, J. (2000). "Camels as pidgin-carriers: Afghan cameleers as a vector for the spread of features of Australian Aboriginal Pidgins and Creoles". In J. Siegel (ed.).
278:, took to establish communication with Aboriginal people. After fixing a permanent settlement site at Port Jackson, Philip gave official orders for establishing a stable
613:(how, why etc.) at the beginning of sentences or a questioning tone because the pidgin lacks the initial question word 'do'. For example, the English translation of
415:
997:
554:
from an Aboriginal language. Another interesting aspect to explore in the verbs in Port Jackson Pidgin English is transitivity. For example, in the sentence
881:
Sandefur, J. (1986). Kriol of North Australia: a language coming of age. Darwin, Australia: Summer Institute of Linguistics, Australian Aborigines Branch
869:
Clements, J. (2003). PROCESSES OF LANGUAGE CONTACT: STUDIES FROM AUSTRALIA AND THE SOUTH PACIFIC. Jeff Siegel (Ed.). Saint-Laurent, Canada: Fides, 2000.
617:
is 'Do you hear, master?' In that case, 'do' has no matching word in the pidgin. Instead, the interrogative voice is expressed by an interrogative tone.
513:
The pronouns in Port Jackson Pidgin English have considerable similarity to those of English. For example, the pronoun for the first-person singular is
546:, coming from 'sit down', means "stay". Another way is to create verbs originating from an Aboriginal language]]. For example, the verb for "dance" is
275:
656:
stability. Lexical items borrowed from English are combined with other items from Aboriginal languages to form a pidgin compound. For example,
956:
Mühlhäusler, P.; McGregor, W. B. (1996). "Post-contact languages of Western Australia". In S. A. Wurm; P. Mühlhäusler; D. T. Tryon (eds.).
892:
Smith, Norval (1994). "An annotated list of creoles, pidgins, and mixed languages". In Jacque Arends; Pieter Muysken; Norval Smith (eds.).
255:
to communicate with the settlers. In this way, Port Jackson Pidgin English started forming at the point of contact between English and the
878:
Meakins, F. & O’Shannessy, C. (2016). Loss and renewal: Australian languages since colonisation. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter Mouton.
887:
Troy, J. (1994). Melaleuka: A history and description of New South Wales Pidgin. Canberra, Australia: Australian National University.
242:
area changed significantly. The environment was devastated as the settlers cleared the ground for settlement. As a result, the local
162:
856:
169:
carried it west and north as they expanded across Australia. It subsequently died out in most of the country, but was
422:
and single morphemes that are from English in the pidgin. For example, the word that is used to refer to convicts is
338:
Port Jackson Pidgin English has a relatively complete linguistic structure, including a borrowed lexicon and set of
538:, retrieved from 'take', there are two more ways by which verbs are created. The first is the borrowing of English
641:
256:
199:
95:
808:
235:
359:
305:
279:
884:
Smith, W. (1933). Pidgin English in Hawaii. American Speech, 8(1), 15-19. https://doi.org/10.2307/3181813
875:
Kouwenberg, S., & Singler, J. (2008). The handbook of Pidgin and Creole studies. Wiley-Blackwell Pub.
947:
Mühlhäusler, P. (1991). "Overview of the pidgin and creole languages of Australia". In S. Romaine (ed.).
595:
363:
210:
Port Jackson Pidgin English was established as the need for communication between Aboriginal people and
825:
668:, means 'Aboriginal woman'. Replicate morphemes are used to emphasise a word’s meaning. For instance,
559:
486:
672:
means 'great devil'. Interrogatives and quantifiers are also borrowed from English. In the pidgin,
653:
383:
379:
327:
525:. It is obvious that those words are retrieved respectively from the English 'I', 'me' and 'we'.
505:
from both languages, it is unique from specific numbers, which are borrowed solely from English.
194:
for Port Jackson Pidgin English to become fleshed out into a full language, Kriol, based on the
419:
190:
45:
965:
Sandefur, J.; Sandefur, J. (1980). "Pidgin and Creole in the Kimberleys, Western Australia".
458:
872:
Holmes, J. (2013). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (4th ed.). Taylor and Francis.
803:. Australia: Summer Institute of Linguistics, Australian Aborigines Branch. pp. 30–33.
267:
borrowing were present in the communication between the Aboriginal people and the settlers.
477:
The numbers in Port Jackson Pidgin English are largely borrowed from English. For example,
166:
70:
247:
important role in the settlers’ community. As they were being increasingly exposed to the
8:
583:
211:
958:
Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas
406:
that nominalises nouns, which is retrieved from the English word 'fellow'. For example,
926:
637:
610:
571:
466:
178:
136:
852:
804:
918:
293:
248:
222:
195:
174:
158:
62:
343:
469:
possessive form in the pidgin, which is retrieved from the English word 'my'.
991:
599:
579:
252:
598:
sentence structure of English. However, there are subtle differences in how
980:
Processes of Language Contact: Studies from Australia and the South Pacific
539:
502:
426:, which literally means 'government man', a compound word that consists of
218:
215:
170:
851:. Germany: Berlin ; Boston : De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 7–11.
271:
182:
909:
Hall, Robert A. Jr. (July 1945). "Notes on Australian Pidgin English".
676:, which can be retrieved from the English word "plenty", means "many".
446:
930:
436:. It literally means "by and by" though its actual meaning is "later".
355:
289:
243:
129:
110:
35:
771:
Melaleuka : a history and description of New South Wales pidgin
922:
603:
387:
284:
457:
respectively originate from the English words 'that' and 'these'.
288:
between the two communities. The person the settlers captured was
649:
648:(also called a 'pre-pidgin') with a mixed lexicon and only basic
347:
313:
264:
263:
features, including language mixing, language simplification and
186:
609:
In the pidgin, the interrogative voice is expressed by using an
849:
Loss and Renewal : Australian Languages Since Colonisation
645:
403:
367:
351:
309:
260:
239:
154:
773:. Australia: Australian National University. pp. 3–308.
556:
Yu laik blakfela massa yu gibit konmil yu gibit mogo and mok
259:. Linguistic evidence supports this summation, showing that
339:
955:
951:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 159–173.
566:
means "I will make known what he is doing". In that case,
299:
214:
arose. Its first records of existence date to 1788 in the
942:. London, New York: Taylor & Francis. pp. 62–64.
449:
are present in Port Jackson Pidgin English. For example,
414:
means 'that one'. The second and the third morphemes are
225:
had at least four generations of mother tongue speakers.
157:
that originated in the region of Sydney and Newcastle in
497:, which means 'little' in the Aboriginal language, and
624:
put at the initial place of a sentence. For instance,
620:
The expression of a statement's negation has the word
386:
are attested in Port Jackson Pidgin English, but most
270:
The second factor was the actions the governor of the
967:
Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies Newsletter
562:
and aspect are attested in the pidgin. For instance,
489:
are formulated by different strategies. For example,
251:, the Aboriginal people began acquiring English as a
964:
826:"Northern Territory Pidgin English: A Lexical Study"
644:, pointed out that Port Jackson Pidgin English is a
908:
342:, largely from English. It also contains different
801:Kriol of North Australia: a language coming of age
982:. Saint Laurent, Quebec: Fides. pp. 195–244.
940:The Languages of the Kimberley, Western Australia
320:
989:
390:are free. Three examples of bound morphemes are
189:, where missionaries provided a safe place for
998:English-based pidgins and creoles of Australia
891:
434:. An example of a single morpheme is 'baimbai
594:Port Jackson Pidgin English shares the same
946:
308:. He soon came to play a major role in the
521:, and that for the first-person plural is
304:Bennelong was an important figure in this
534:directly borrowing from English, such as
937:
917:(3). Language, Vol. 19, No. 3: 263–267.
485:comes from 'one'. However, non-specific
977:
846:
300:Bennelong as the communication catalyst
990:
823:
786:Kriol- An Australian Language Resource
764:
762:
760:
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756:
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589:
228:
798:
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720:
718:
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712:
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708:
706:
704:
702:
501:from English . As the word contains
13:
783:
14:
1009:
840:
792:
699:
481:comes from 'many thousand', and
202:spoken by those at the mission.
901:
683:
642:Australian Agricultural Company
410:means "Aboriginal people', and
96:South Australian Pidgin English
16:English-based Australian pidgin
824:Harris, John W. (1988-01-01).
817:
777:
440:
321:Influences on both communities
151:New South Wales Pidgin English
1:
692:
628:means 'We do not want food'.
373:
296:between the two communities.
140: New South Wales Pidgin
960:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
312:and integrated into the new
306:cross-cultural communication
280:cross-cultural communication
7:
564:ai meikit no wot hi/it baut
508:
147:Port Jackson Pidgin English
79:Port Jackson Pidgin English
22:Port Jackson Pidgin English
10:
1014:
847:Meakins, Felicity (2016).
660:, literally consisting of
631:
472:
461:also exist. For instance,
402:. The first morpheme is a
333:
205:
200:Australian language groups
640:, a company agent of the
328:social division of labour
127:
108:
103:
89:
59:
51:
41:
31:
26:
21:
938:McGregor, W. B. (2004).
652:, but it exhibits great
528:
418:markers. There are also
198:and the eight different
799:John, Sandefur (1986).
578:, which marks both the
445:There is evidence that
769:Troy, Jakelin (1994).
459:Possessive determiners
191:Indigenous Australians
46:Aboriginal Australians
27:New South Wales Pidgin
949:Language in Australia
611:interrogative pronoun
467:first-person singular
161:in the early days of
153:was an English-based
784:Sharpe, Margaret C.
257:Aboriginal languages
71:English-based pidgin
894:Pidgins and Creoles
596:subject–verb–object
584:imperfective aspect
364:subject–verb–object
330:within the colony.
830:English World-Wide
590:Sentence structure
572:present continuous
362:and uses the same
229:Historical factors
179:Northern Territory
896:. John Benjamins.
858:978-1-5015-0103-6
626:bail wi want pata
236:Aboriginal people
144:
143:
1005:
983:
974:
961:
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943:
934:
897:
863:
862:
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837:
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815:
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775:
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550:, which is from
542:. For instance,
294:language contact
249:English language
212:English settlers
196:English language
175:Australian Kriol
139:
122:
113:
65:
19:
18:
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1012:
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606:are presented.
592:
531:
511:
475:
443:
384:bound morphemes
376:
336:
323:
302:
231:
208:
159:New South Wales
135:
120:
109:
85:
66:
63:Language family
61:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1011:
1001:
1000:
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788:. p. 178.
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685:
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633:
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602:sentences and
591:
588:
530:
527:
510:
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474:
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465:indicates the
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420:compound words
380:free morphemes
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142:
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104:Language codes
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698:
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681:
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675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
654:morphological
651:
647:
643:
639:
638:Robert Dawson
629:
627:
623:
618:
616:
612:
607:
605:
601:
600:interrogative
597:
587:
585:
581:
580:present tense
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
540:phrasal verbs
537:
526:
524:
520:
516:
506:
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503:lexical items
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438:
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331:
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318:
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311:
307:
297:
295:
291:
286:
281:
277:
276:Arthur Philip
273:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
253:lingua franca
250:
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902:Bibliography
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829:
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687:
684:Significance
677:
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621:
619:
615:yu hia massa
614:
608:
593:
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563:
555:
551:
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493:consists of
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450:
444:
435:
431:
427:
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416:transitivity
411:
407:
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395:
391:
377:
360:prepositions
346:, including
344:word classes
337:
324:
303:
269:
232:
219:penal colony
216:Port Jackson
209:
163:colonisation
150:
146:
145:
128:
116:
78:
487:quantifiers
479:menitausand
447:determiners
441:Determiners
370:stability.
368:syntactical
272:First Fleet
185:Mission in
183:Roper River
810:0868923273
693:References
670:debildebil
491:oranjibita
424:gabamenman
374:Morphology
356:adjectives
636:Although
388:morphemes
290:Bennelong
244:ecosystem
171:creolised
130:Glottolog
111:ISO 639-3
55:1780-1900
42:Ethnicity
36:Australia
992:Category
973:: 31–37.
911:Language
604:negation
582:and the
574:form of
552:garabara
548:koroberi
509:Pronouns
408:blakfela
348:pronouns
285:language
173:forming
167:Stockmen
137:news1234
90:Dialects
689:Kriol.
658:blakjin
650:grammar
632:Lexicon
570:is the
544:sitdaun
473:Numbers
428:gabamen
412:datfela
352:adverbs
334:Grammar
314:society
265:lexicon
238:in the
206:History
187:Ngukurr
181:at the
177:in the
75:Pacific
931:409833
929:
855:
807:
674:plenti
646:jargon
499:bit of
495:narang
404:suffix
310:colony
261:pidgin
240:Sydney
155:pidgin
32:Region
927:JSTOR
662:black
560:tense
529:Verbs
392:-fela
378:Both
340:verbs
223:Kriol
853:ISBN
836:(1).
805:ISBN
664:and
622:bail
568:baut
536:teik
463:main
453:and
430:and
398:and
382:and
358:and
117:None
919:doi
678:Wen
666:gin
517:or
483:wan
455:diz
451:dat
432:man
400:-it
396:-im
149:or
121:mis
52:Era
994::
971:14
969:.
925:.
915:19
913:.
832:.
828:.
701:^
586:.
576:do
523:wi
519:mi
515:ai
394:,
354:,
350:,
274:,
165:.
933:.
921::
861:.
834:9
813:.
123:)
119:(
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