257:(1655–1716) estimated that perhaps one-sixth of the population of Scotland, about 200,000 people, had left their homes to beg for food and charity, a doubling of the 100,000 vagrants that he estimated travelled the country during non-crisis years. Much of this movement was within large parishes, which allowed families to continue to receive the poor relief that was officially confined to local residents. However, many of these families later moved further afield to major urban centres and to other countries, particularly England and Ireland. So many poor beggars arrived in Edinburgh in search of relief in December 1696 that the town council had to erect a "refugee camp" in
22:
163:, who often shared rights to common pasture, occupied small portions of land and participated in joint farming as hired labour. Farms also might have grassmen, who had rights only to grazing. There were also large numbers of casual wage labourers who carried out basic agricultural work. Labourers on fixed incomes, along with pensioners, were particularly vulnerable to the impact of famine, but it also affected those with land, who could not save enough seed for future planting and feed their families. Even pastoral farmers were affected as the price of animal feed became unaffordable.
210:
124:
309:
292:, trades' societies and town councils. Town councils also had the ability to intervene in local grain markets in an attempt to maintain low prices in times of scarcity. The impact of the famine may have been exacerbated in urban centres as the influx of new starving populations brought outbreaks of disease such as
182:, followed by failed harvests in 1695, 1696, 1698 and 1699. Famine was generally widespread across Scotland from 1694 to 1699, although some regions were affected for shorter periods. However, these followed years of relatively poor harvests in the 1680s, while the impact did not entirely subside until after 1700.
324:
in present-day
Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Norway and Sweden plus an estimated two million deaths in France and Northern Italy. Its historical significance and impact is partly due to the fact famine had become relatively rare in the second half of the seventeenth century, with only 1674 being one of
386:
for trade with East Asia. An estimated 15-40% of available capital in
Scotland was invested in this project, which was abandoned in 1700; only 1,000 of 3,000 colonists survived and only one ship returned. The losses of £150,000 put a severe strain on the Scottish commercial system and were a key
135:
Before the mid-17th century, difficult terrain, poor roads and primitive methods of transport meant there was little trade between different areas of
Scotland. This became less true after 1660, with the number of rural towns authorised to hold markets increasing from 100 to over 300 by 1707, but
344:, which became the most significant form of transatlantic emigration from Scotland in this period. From 1650 to 1700, approximately 7,000 Scots emigrated to America, 10–20,000 to Europe and England and 60–100,000 to Ireland. In a continuation of earlier Scottish settlement to the
136:
surpluses were exported, the most significant being the lucrative cattle trade with
England. For various reasons, Scottish agriculture was not as productive as it should have been, a situation which persisted into the first decades of the 18th century.
238:, an area particularly badly hit because of its reliance on the Baltic trade. Individuals were reduced to eating grass, nettles and rotten meat in order to survive. Estimates of overall deaths from starvation range from 5 to 15%, but in areas like
189:, a prolonged period of colder and wetter weather that began in 15th century. This lowered the altitude at which crops could be grown and in some years shortened the growing season by up to two months. The massive eruptions of volcanoes at
225:
claimed during the period from 1695 to 1697 "many people starved to death for want, both in town and country" and in 1698 reports reached
Edinburgh of people found dead on the roads throughout the country. The same year, the price of
220:
The results of the climatic conditions were inflation, severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north of the country, with eye-witness accounts indicating large numbers of people died from starvation. Local
363:
of the eighteenth century. These changes made
Scottish farming highly productive and ensured people could be fed in extreme conditions, even with the population growing.
76:, the 1690s was the coldest decade in Scotland for the past 750 years. Failed harvests in 1695, 1696, 1698 and 1699, combined with an economic slump caused by the
139:
Most settlements depended for subsistence on what was produced locally, often with very little in reserve in bad years. Most farming was based on the lowland
268:
was overwhelmed by the scale of the crisis. In the countryside, where the majority of the population lived, it relied on funds raised and distributed by the
288:
there were more mechanisms that could be used to provide for the poor. In addition to the kirk sessions and general sessions of the church, there were
1254:
1204:
147:, settlements of a handful of families that jointly farmed an area notionally suitable for two or three plough teams. These were allocated in
1276:
332:
preventing distribution of relief to strangers, while continental Europe had the same issues. It may have been a factor in emigration to the
69:
death rates may have reached 25%. One reason the shortages of the 1690s are so well remembered is because they were the last of their kind.
1362:
166:
The closing decade of the seventeenth century brought an end to the generally favourable economic conditions that had dominated since the
1496:
1249:
1372:
284:
ministers had been ejected from their livings and had not been replaced by the time of the famines. In the urban settlements of the
1306:
1516:
1259:
1402:
1316:
1229:
348:, an estimated 20,000 migrated there from 1696 to 1698, due to the availability of land confiscated following the end of the
328:
The conditions resulted in limited migration between estates and parishes in
Scotland; emigration to England was limited by
1296:
1281:
1213:
1197:
92:
1481:
1266:
1239:
1133:
1068:
1045:
1026:
874:
855:
95:
and emigration to
England, Europe, the Americas and particularly Ireland. The crisis resulted in the setting up of the
355:
To tackle the desperate economic situation, in 1695 the
Scottish Parliament passed Acts allowing the consolidation of
1506:
1244:
1152:
938:
1311:
427:
360:
1387:
1377:
1271:
277:
216:, Edinburgh, where the town council erected a "refugee camp" to deal with the influx of starving families in 1696
272:, usually led by the parish minister and reliant on the generosity of local landholders, particularly the local
1511:
1321:
1301:
1190:
1172:
1090:
1004:
985:
966:
886:"Complexity in crisis: The volcanic cold pulse of the 1690s and the consequences of Scotland's failure to cope"
1531:
457:
321:
1234:
1521:
1501:
1486:
254:
201:(1694) in Indonesia may also have polluted the atmosphere and filtered out large amounts of sunlight.
1526:
1460:
349:
281:
1100:
Smout, T. C.; Fenton, Alexander (1965). "Scottish
Agriculture before the Improvers—an Exploration".
21:
1491:
392:
313:
66:
38:
1440:
1347:
1455:
1382:
378:, received a charter to raise capital through public subscription. The Company invested in the
167:
112:
140:
1291:
265:
84:
1445:
1337:
897:
87:
was overwhelmed by the scale of the crisis, although provision in the urban centres of the
382:, an ambitious plan funded almost entirely by Scottish investors to build a colony on the
8:
1392:
371:
341:
258:
213:
144:
100:
62:
50:
901:
276:. The role of the minister was undermined by the results of the change of regime in the
1414:
1109:
388:
261:
to house all of them. Other towns reacted by enforcing severe punishments for beggars.
171:
108:
77:
1182:
1286:
1168:
1148:
1129:
1086:
1064:
1041:
1038:
Britannia's Children: Emigration from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland since 1600
1022:
1000:
981:
962:
925:
910:
885:
870:
851:
383:
345:
333:
329:
250:
179:
959:
Health, famine and disease: 1500–1770, in "The Oxford Companion to Scottish History"
1450:
1419:
1367:
1352:
915:
905:
367:
123:
96:
73:
54:
379:
242:
may have reached 25%. The young, the old and widows were particularly vulnerable.
1357:
297:
209:
58:
186:
128:
1475:
1407:
929:
239:
152:
104:
1342:
269:
198:
234:
Scottish cereal crop, peaked at 166.7% of the average for 1690 to 1694 in
337:
231:
194:
91:
was probably better than in the countryside. It led to migration between
1113:
53:
during the 1690s, named after the biblical famine in Egypt predicted by
1435:
920:
438:
175:
156:
308:
528:
375:
320:
These problems were not confined to Scotland; the years 1695-97 saw
1080:
Scottish emigration in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in
293:
235:
222:
1078:
Smout, T. C.; Landsman, N. C; Devine, Tom (1994). Canny, N (ed.).
761:
356:
227:
159:, lesser landholders and free tenants, while below them were the
148:
884:
D'Arrigo, Rosanne; Klinger, Patrick; Newfield, Timothy (2020).
246:
160:
88:
46:
631:
629:
627:
689:
289:
285:
273:
253:
taking to the roads to find work, charity and food. In 1698,
190:
45:), is the term used for a period of widespread and prolonged
797:
737:
883:
725:
624:
444:
576:
428:"How the Cold Climate Shaped Scotland's Political Climate"
773:
749:
821:
552:
480:
468:
1212:
492:
1056:
Smout, TC (2012). Devine, Tom; Wormald, Jenny (eds.).
809:
564:
504:
713:
701:
677:
665:
600:
245:
The famines led to a rapid increase in the number of
185:
Across Europe, the 1690s marked the low point of the
843:
Bowie, K (2012). Devine, Tom; Wormald, John (eds.).
785:
653:
641:
612:
588:
540:
325:
dearth and these were to be the last of their kind.
1077:
767:
516:
404:
61:. Estimates suggest between 5 and 15% of the total
170:in 1660. After 1689, Scottish involvement in the
1473:
867:Famine in Scotland: The "Ill Years" of the 1690s
359:and the division of common land which drove the
174:led to a slump in trade with key markets in the
107:increased the pressure for political union with
1145:Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625
1060:The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History
890:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
847:The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History
151:, of "runs" (furrows) and "rigs" (ridges), to
80:, resulted in severe famine and depopulation.
1198:
1099:
957:Dingwall, HM (2001). Lynch, Michael (ed.).
486:
474:
366:Other changes included the creation of the
1205:
1191:
1121:White, I. D (2011). Lynch, Michael (ed.).
1014:Morrison, I (2011). Lynch, Michael (ed.).
845:New perspectives on pre-union Scotland in
997:Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745
994:
975:
939:"The Economic Crisis of the 17th Century"
919:
909:
827:
803:
743:
695:
534:
510:
421:
419:
1125:The Oxford Companion to Scottish History
1035:
1018:The Oxford Companion to Scottish History
1013:
956:
936:
815:
731:
635:
582:
307:
208:
122:
65:died of starvation, while in areas like
20:
1162:
1142:
659:
498:
1474:
864:
779:
755:
719:
707:
683:
671:
647:
618:
606:
594:
546:
522:
416:
410:
155:. Those with property rights included
127:Temperature comparisons, showing the "
1186:
1120:
1055:
842:
791:
570:
558:
445:D'Arrigo, Klinger & Newfield 2020
946:Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies
1215:Scotland in the early modern period
312:Runrig farming outside the town of
13:
1497:History of agriculture in Scotland
14:
1543:
1058:Land and sea: the environment in
768:Smout, Landsman & Devine 1994
911:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.106746
425:
1102:The Agricultural History Review
303:
278:Glorious Revolution in Scotland
1147:. Edinburgh University Press.
1123:Rural Settlement 1500–1770 in
999:. Edinburgh University Press.
869:. Edinburgh University Press.
450:
103:, whose failure following the
1:
1517:Famines in the United Kingdom
398:
1363:Seventeenth-century religion
995:Mitchison, Rosalind (1983).
976:Mitchison, Rosalind (2002).
537:, pp. 291–292, 301–302.
374:, established to trade with
7:
1415:Union with England Act 1707
1167:. Oxford University Press.
1128:. Oxford University Press.
1085:. Oxford University Press.
1021:. Oxford University Press.
980:(3rd ed.). Routledge.
961:. Oxford University Press.
168:Restoration of the monarchy
10:
1548:
1373:Wars of the Three Kingdoms
836:
255:Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun
1482:1690s in economic history
1428:
1330:
1222:
361:agricultural improvements
350:Williamite War in Ireland
296:, which are evident from
204:
118:
1507:Demographics of Scotland
393:Kingdom of Great Britain
314:Haddington, East Lothian
280:, which meant that many
111:, finalised in the 1707
16:1690s famine in Scotland
1163:Wormald, Jenny (2005).
1143:Wormald, Jenny (1991).
1036:Richards, Eric (2004).
487:Smout & Fenton 1965
475:Smout & Fenton 1965
937:de Vries, Jan (2009).
865:Cullen, Karen (2010).
317:
217:
193:in Iceland (1693) and
132:
113:Union with England Act
42:
26:
1512:Disasters in Scotland
1082:Europeans on the Move
978:A History of Scotland
311:
266:Old Scottish Poor Law
212:
126:
85:Old Scottish Poor Law
43:seachd bliadhna gorta
24:
1532:17th-century famines
698:, pp. 127, 145.
33:, also known as the
25:1689 map of Scotland
1393:Massacre of Glencoe
1388:Glorious Revolution
1165:Scotland: A History
902:2020JVGR..38906746D
806:, pp. 301–302.
782:, pp. 178–179.
758:, pp. 173–174.
746:, pp. 254–255.
734:, pp. 152–153.
638:, pp. 286–287.
561:, pp. 542–543.
458:"The Darien Scheme"
387:driver of the 1707
372:Company of Scotland
342:indentured servants
322:catastrophic famine
259:Greyfriars kirkyard
214:Greyfriars Kirkyard
101:Company of Scotland
63:Scottish population
1522:Scottish Poor Laws
585:, pp. 99–101.
318:
264:The system of the
218:
133:
27:
1502:Death in Scotland
1487:1690s in Scotland
1469:
1468:
573:, pp. 22–23.
501:, pp. 41–55.
384:Isthmus of Panama
346:Ulster Plantation
340:by volunteers as
334:American colonies
330:English Poor Laws
74:tree ring records
72:As documented in
1539:
1527:1695 in Scotland
1420:Jacobite risings
1353:Marian civil war
1216:
1207:
1200:
1193:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1158:
1139:
1117:
1096:
1074:
1051:
1032:
1010:
991:
972:
953:
943:
933:
923:
913:
880:
861:
831:
825:
819:
813:
807:
801:
795:
789:
783:
777:
771:
765:
759:
753:
747:
741:
735:
729:
723:
717:
711:
705:
699:
693:
687:
681:
675:
669:
663:
657:
651:
645:
639:
633:
622:
616:
610:
604:
598:
592:
586:
580:
574:
568:
562:
556:
550:
544:
538:
532:
526:
520:
514:
508:
502:
496:
490:
484:
478:
472:
466:
465:
454:
448:
442:
436:
435:
423:
414:
408:
368:Bank of Scotland
300:for the period.
298:parish registers
97:Bank of Scotland
35:Seven Lean Years
1547:
1546:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1492:1690s disasters
1472:
1471:
1470:
1465:
1424:
1398:Seven ill years
1358:Union of Crowns
1326:
1218:
1214:
1211:
1175:
1155:
1136:
1093:
1071:
1048:
1029:
1007:
988:
969:
941:
877:
858:
839:
834:
826:
822:
814:
810:
802:
798:
790:
786:
778:
774:
766:
762:
754:
750:
742:
738:
730:
726:
718:
714:
706:
702:
694:
690:
682:
678:
670:
666:
658:
654:
646:
642:
634:
625:
617:
613:
605:
601:
593:
589:
581:
577:
569:
565:
557:
553:
545:
541:
533:
529:
521:
517:
509:
505:
497:
493:
485:
481:
473:
469:
456:
455:
451:
443:
439:
426:Sima, Richard.
424:
417:
409:
405:
401:
306:
207:
172:Nine Years' War
121:
78:Nine Years' War
59:Book of Genesis
39:Scottish Gaelic
31:Seven Ill Years
17:
12:
11:
5:
1545:
1535:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1334:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1325:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1226:
1224:
1220:
1219:
1210:
1209:
1202:
1195:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1173:
1160:
1153:
1140:
1135:978-0199693054
1134:
1118:
1097:
1091:
1075:
1070:978-0191624339
1069:
1052:
1047:978-1852854416
1046:
1033:
1028:978-0199693054
1027:
1011:
1005:
992:
986:
973:
967:
954:
934:
881:
876:978-0748638871
875:
862:
857:978-0191624339
856:
838:
835:
833:
832:
830:, p. 314.
828:Mitchison 2002
820:
808:
804:Mitchison 2002
796:
794:, p. 314.
784:
772:
760:
748:
744:Mitchison 2002
736:
724:
722:, p. 153.
712:
710:, p. 105.
700:
696:Mitchison 1983
688:
686:, p. 160.
676:
674:, p. 158.
664:
652:
640:
623:
611:
609:, p. 117.
599:
587:
575:
563:
551:
539:
535:Mitchison 2002
527:
515:
511:Mitchison 1983
503:
491:
479:
467:
449:
437:
415:
402:
400:
397:
305:
302:
206:
203:
187:Little Ice Age
153:tenant farmers
129:Little Ice Age
120:
117:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1544:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1462:
1461:Privy Council
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1408:Darien scheme
1406:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1368:Bishops' Wars
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1208:
1203:
1201:
1196:
1194:
1189:
1188:
1185:
1176:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1154:0-7486-0276-3
1150:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1084:
1081:
1076:
1072:
1066:
1062:
1059:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1040:. Continuum.
1039:
1034:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1002:
998:
993:
989:
983:
979:
974:
970:
964:
960:
955:
952:(2): 151–194.
951:
947:
940:
935:
931:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
882:
878:
872:
868:
863:
859:
853:
849:
846:
841:
840:
829:
824:
818:, p. 79.
817:
816:Richards 2004
812:
805:
800:
793:
788:
781:
776:
770:, p. 90.
769:
764:
757:
752:
745:
740:
733:
732:de Vries 2009
728:
721:
716:
709:
704:
697:
692:
685:
680:
673:
668:
661:
656:
650:, p. 56.
649:
644:
637:
636:Dingwall 2001
632:
630:
628:
621:, p. 87.
620:
615:
608:
603:
597:, p. 19.
596:
591:
584:
583:Morrison 2011
579:
572:
567:
560:
555:
549:, p. 15.
548:
543:
536:
531:
525:, p. 55.
524:
519:
513:, p. 82.
512:
507:
500:
495:
489:, p. 86.
488:
483:
477:, p. 79.
476:
471:
463:
459:
453:
447:, pp. ?.
446:
441:
433:
429:
422:
420:
413:, p. 14.
412:
407:
403:
396:
394:
391:creating the
390:
389:Acts of Union
385:
381:
380:Darién scheme
377:
373:
369:
364:
362:
358:
353:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
326:
323:
315:
310:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
243:
241:
240:Aberdeenshire
237:
233:
229:
224:
215:
211:
202:
200:
196:
192:
188:
183:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
137:
130:
125:
116:
114:
110:
106:
105:Darien scheme
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
81:
79:
75:
70:
68:
67:Aberdeenshire
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
23:
19:
1429:Institutions
1403:Colonisation
1397:
1378:Commonwealth
1343:Rough Wooing
1317:Witch trials
1230:Architecture
1164:
1144:
1126:
1122:
1108:(2): 73–93.
1105:
1101:
1083:
1079:
1061:
1057:
1037:
1019:
1015:
996:
977:
958:
949:
945:
893:
889:
866:
848:
844:
823:
811:
799:
787:
775:
763:
751:
739:
727:
715:
703:
691:
679:
667:
662:, p. ?.
660:Wormald 2005
655:
643:
614:
602:
590:
578:
566:
554:
542:
530:
518:
506:
499:Wormald 1991
494:
482:
470:
461:
452:
440:
431:
406:
370:, while the
365:
354:
327:
319:
304:Significance
282:episcopalian
270:kirk session
263:
244:
219:
184:
165:
143:or highland
138:
134:
82:
71:
34:
30:
28:
18:
1383:Restoration
1348:Reformation
1338:Renaissance
1255:agriculture
921:10023/21075
780:Cullen 2010
756:Cullen 2010
720:Cullen 2010
708:Cullen 2010
684:Cullen 2010
672:Cullen 2010
648:Cullen 2010
619:Cullen 2010
607:Cullen 2010
595:Cullen 2010
547:Cullen 2010
523:Cullen 2010
462:Historic UK
411:Cullen 2010
338:West Indies
197:(1693) and
1476:Categories
1456:Parliament
1297:Literature
1282:Government
1245:Demography
1174:0191622435
1092:0198204191
1006:074860233X
987:0415278805
968:0199693056
896:: 106746.
792:Bowie 2012
571:Smout 2012
559:White 2011
399:References
157:husbandmen
1277:Geography
1267:Education
1240:Childhood
930:0377-0273
376:East Asia
352:in 1691.
1292:Language
1287:Identity
1114:40273166
1016:Climate
357:run rigs
336:and the
294:smallpox
251:vagrants
236:Aberdeen
223:tacksmen
149:run rigs
141:fermtoun
99:and the
93:parishes
51:Scotland
1312:Warfare
1307:Society
1250:Economy
1063:. OUP.
898:Bibcode
850:. OUP.
837:Sources
316:c. 1690
247:paupers
228:oatmeal
161:cottars
109:England
57:in the
1331:Events
1272:Family
1223:Topics
1171:
1151:
1132:
1112:
1089:
1067:
1044:
1025:
1003:
984:
965:
928:
873:
854:
290:guilds
286:burghs
232:staple
230:, the
205:Impact
199:Aboina
180:France
176:Baltic
119:Causes
89:burghs
55:Joseph
47:famine
1441:Court
1322:Women
1302:Music
1260:trade
1110:JSTOR
942:(PDF)
274:laird
195:Serua
191:Hekla
145:baile
1451:Navy
1436:Army
1169:ISBN
1149:ISBN
1130:ISBN
1087:ISBN
1065:ISBN
1042:ISBN
1023:ISBN
1001:ISBN
982:ISBN
963:ISBN
926:ISSN
871:ISBN
852:ISBN
249:and
178:and
83:The
29:The
1446:Law
1235:Art
916:hdl
906:doi
894:389
432:Eos
49:in
1478::
1106:13
1104:.
1054:*
950:40
948:.
944:.
924:.
914:.
904:.
892:.
888:.
626:^
460:.
430:.
418:^
395:.
115:.
41::
1206:e
1199:t
1192:v
1179:.
1177:.
1159:.
1157:.
1138:.
1116:.
1095:.
1073:.
1050:.
1031:.
1009:.
990:.
971:.
932:.
918::
908::
900::
879:.
860:.
464:.
434:.
131:"
37:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.jpg)
