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world; each successive paradigm defined what questions could be asked about the world and (perhaps arbitrarily) discarded aspects of the previous paradigm which no longer seemed applicable or important. Kuhn claimed that far from merely building on the previous theory's accomplishments, each new paradigm essentially throws out the old way of looking at the universe, and comes up with its own vocabulary to describe it and its own guidelines for expanding knowledge within the new
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phenomenon, perhaps largely explained by the idea that previous contributions (including the emergence of contradictions between existing theories, or unexpected empirical results) make a certain concept ready for discovery. Simple priority disputes are often a matter of documenting when certain experiments were performed, or when certain ideas were first articulated to colleagues or recorded in a fixed medium.
1160:, hypothetically global in nature (though often based around a relatively few nations and institutions of stature), but also strongly segregated into different fields of study. The scientific community is important because it represents a source of established knowledge which, if used properly, ought to be more reliable than personally acquired knowledge of any given individual. The community also provides a
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1316:. In the post-Cold War era, a decline in government funding from many countries has been met with an increase of industrial and private investment. The funding of science is a major factor in its historical and global development. So although science is hypothetically international in scope, in a practical sense it has usually centered around wherever it could find the most funding.
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A detailed look at the history of science often reveals that the minds of great thinkers were primed with the results of previous efforts, and often arrive on the scene to find a crisis of one kind or another. For example, Einstein did not consider the physics of motion and gravitation in isolation.
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assumptions about the universe. The mode was thus uncertain about whether paradigms shifted in a way which necessarily relied upon greater attainment of truth. In Kuhn's view, Aristotle's physics, Newton's classical mechanics, and
Einstein's Relativity were entirely different ways to think about the
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and are hypothetically subjected to peer scrutiny, though a number of scholarly critics from both inside and outside the scientific community have, in recent decades, began to question the effect of commercial and government investment in science on the peer review and publishing process, as well as
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Kuhn's model met with much suspicion from scientists, historians, and philosophers. Some scientists felt that Kuhn went too far in divorcing scientific progress from truth; many historians felt that his argument was too codified for something as polyvariant and historically contingent as scientific
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One of the major occupations with those interested in the history of science is whether or not it displays certain patterns or trends, usually along the question of change between one or more scientific theories. Generally speaking, there have historically been three major models adopted in various
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caused by World War I and World War II and boycotts of German scientists resulted in the loss of German as a scientific language. In later decades of the 20th century, the economic dominance and scientific productivity of the United States led to the rise of
English, which after the end of the Cold
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Available methods of communication have improved tremendously over time. Instead of waiting months or years for a hand-copied letter to arrive, today scientific communication can be practically instantaneous. Earlier, most natural philosophers worked in relative isolation, due to the difficulty and
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The question of who should get credit for any given discovery is often a source of some controversy. There are many priority disputes, in which multiple individuals or teams have competing claims over who discovered something first. Multiple simultaneous discovery is actually a surprisingly common
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During the
Scientific Revolution, early scientists communicated in Latin, which had been the language of academia during the Middle Ages, and which was read and written by scholars from many countries. In the mid-1600s, publications started to appear in local languages. By 1900, German, French and
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Many other theories of scientific change have been proposed over the years with various changes of emphasis and implications. In general, though, most float somewhere between these three models for change in scientific theory, the connection between theory and truth, and the nature of scientific
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published in 1962. Kuhn, a former physicist, argued against the view that scientific progress was linear, and that modern scientific theories were necessarily just more accurate versions of theories of the past. Rather, Kuhn's version of scientific development consisted of dominant structures of
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are often celebrated as geniuses and heroes of science. Popularizers of science, including the news media and scientific biographers, contribute to this phenomenon. But many scientific historians emphasize the collective aspects of scientific discovery, and de-emphasize the importance of the
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In the last few centuries, science as a social enterprise has grown rapidly. The few individuals who could conduct natural research in antiquity were either wealthy individuals themselves, had wealthy sponsors, or had the backing of a religious group. Today, scientific research has tremendous
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By the late 20th century, scientific research has become a large-scale effort, largely accomplished in institutional teams. The amount and frequency of inter-team collaboration has continued to increase, especially after the rise of the
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His major accomplishments solved a problem which had come to a head in the field only in recent years—empirical data showing that the speed of light was inexplicably constant, no matter the apparent speed of the observer. (See
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of incorrect theories and the adoption instead of theories which are progressively closer to truth. In this model, scientific progress is a linear accumulation of facts, each one adding to the last. In this model, the
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The first major model, implicit in most early histories of science and generally a model put forward by practicing scientists themselves in their textbook literature, is associated with the criticisms of
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Much of what is considered the modern institution of science was formed during its professionalization in the 19th century. During this time the location of scientific research shifted primarily to
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Many times the question of exactly which event should qualify as the moment of discovery is difficult to answer. One of the most famous examples of this is the question of the discovery of
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were able to concentrate oxygen in the laboratory and characterize its properties, they did not recognize it as a component of air. Priestly actually thought it was
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of London, 1660 to the present day, brought together a diverse collection of scientists to discuss theories, conduct experiments, and review each other's work. The
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lost political support, and could not continue his studies until he came up with discoveries that showed his worth to the political rulers. The admiral
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Individual ideas and accomplishments are among the most famous aspects of science, both internally and in larger society. Breakthrough figures like
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change; and many philosophers felt that the argument did not go far enough. The furthest extreme of such reasoning was put forth by the philosopher
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could not continue his voyages of exploration after the emperors withdrew their support. Another famous example was the suppression of the work of
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the phrase that forms the title of this article, "sociology of the history of science", is not used anywhere else but in the title of this article.
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first conceived of the modern notion of oxygen—as a substance that is consumed from the air in the processes of burning and respiration.
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was created as an institution of the government of France 1666, meeting in the King's library. The
Akademie der Wissenschaften began in
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slowness of communication. Still, there was a considerable amount of cross-fertilization between distant groups and individuals.
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One of the basic requirements for a scientific community is the existence and approval of a political sponsor; in
England, the
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Three models of change in scientific theories, depicted graphically to reflect roughly the different views associated with
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inquiry, and also more familiar with and more educated about the subject. In 1758, with the aid of his pupils,
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as well. In the early years of the 20th century, especially after the role of science in the
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Scientific Babel: The
Language of Science from the Fall of Latin to the Rise of English
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A major challenge to this model came from the work of the historian and philosopher
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established a society, which was subsequently incorporated as the Turin
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the internal disciplinary limitations to the scientific publication process.
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1411:(1902–1994) from the 1930s. Popper's model of science is one in which
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Scientific consensus § Scientific consensus and the scientific minority
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allowed the rapid spread of new ideas across 15th and 16th century Europe.
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government support and also ongoing support from the private sector.
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War has become the dominant language of scientific communication.
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as a member, but failed upon his condemnation in 1633. The
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by
Goldstein, I. F. and Goldstein, M. (Westview / Da Capo
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operates under the aegis of the monarchy; in the US, the
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Nowadays, almost all modern scientists participate in a
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had to feign madness to avoid execution. The polymath
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The
Academia Secretorum Naturae was replaced by the
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Basque Museum of the History of Medicine and Science
150:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1164:mechanism, often in the form of practices such as
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1606:How did English become the language of science?
1308:funded nationwide computer networks including
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1466:", in which research went through phases of "
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1436:), which itself was eclipsed by the work of
1199:was the foundation of scientific societies:
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52:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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1551:a hypothetical component of air, known as
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228:Learn how and when to remove this message
210:Learn how and when to remove this message
108:Learn how and when to remove this message
1462:thought and practices, which he called "
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1458:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
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159:"Sociology of the history of science"
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148:adding citations to reliable sources
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3484:Digital media use and mental health
3198:Sociology of the history of science
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1116:sociology of the history of science
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1503:The nature of scientific discovery
1470:" science ("puzzle solving") and "
1365:Patterns in the history of science
14:
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3193:Sociology of scientific ignorance
3038:History and philosophy of science
3020:Economics of scientific knowledge
2549:History and philosophy of science
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33:This article has multiple issues.
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41:or discuss these issues on the
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1455:(1922–1996) in his work
1138:Science as a social enterprise
1:
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1230:in 1603. The Lincei included
3546:Normalization process theory
3103:Philosophy of social science
1339:National Academy of Sciences
7:
2900:Neurology and neurosurgery
1570:
1526:Michelson–Morley experiment
1444:), and later the theory of
1242:1657, lasted 10 years. The
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1195:A major development of the
83:. The specific problem is:
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3169:construction of technology
2345:Human environmental impact
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1341:was founded by Act of the
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1617:Michael D Gordin (2017).
1577:Historiography of science
3108:Philosophy of technology
1782:Structural functionalism
1209:Giambattista della Porta
1144:History of communication
420:Structural functionalism
2614:20th century in science
2609:19th century in science
2354:Industrial revolutions
1802:Symbolic interactionism
1320:English were dominant.
1226:, which was founded in
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335:Industrial revolutions
3181:Sociology of knowledge
2534:Theories and sociology
1792:Social constructionism
1415:is achieved through a
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3681:Evidence-based policy
3566:Sociotechnical system
3415:Traditional knowledge
3295:Psychology of science
3268:Mapping controversies
3174:shaping of technology
3133:Social constructivism
3098:Philosophy of science
3055:History of technology
2594:Scientific Revolution
2399:Social stratification
2281:Conversation analysis
1838:Cultural anthropology
1828:Comparative sociology
1754:Sociological practice
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1322:Anti-German sentiment
1312:the precursor to the
1248:Académie des Sciences
1236:Accademia del Cimento
1197:Scientific Revolution
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1142:Further information:
1124:philosophy of science
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1848:Historical sociology
1541:Carl Wilhelm Scheele
1224:Accademia dei Lincei
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144:improve this article
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1868:Social anthropology
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1749:Sociological theory
1440:(1879–1955) (
1434:classical mechanics
1432:(1642–1727) (
1413:scientific progress
1174:scientific journals
390:Social cycle theory
261:Part of a series on
3774:History of science
3691:Funding of science
3561:Skunkworks project
3258:Double hermeneutic
3043:History of science
2520:History of science
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2003:race and ethnicity
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2985:
2978:
2969:
2968:
2958:
2954:
2953:
2946:
2942:
2931:
2930:
2852:Computer science
2700:Natural sciences
2665:Medieval Islamic
2561:
2513:
2506:
2499:
2490:
2489:
2476:
2475:
2461:
2460:
2449:
2448:
2425:
2424:
2404:Social structure
2301:Network analysis
1893:
1892:
1883:Sociolinguistics
1873:Social movements
1797:Social darwinism
1734:Public sociology
1683:
1676:
1669:
1660:
1659:
1653:
1652:, 1981) page 255
1639:
1633:
1632:
1614:
1608:
1603:
1545:Joseph Priestley
1518:"Eureka!" moment
1509:Sir Isaac Newton
1189:printing presses
1104:
1097:
1090:
1074:
1073:
825:Network analysis
715:Sociocybernetics
705:Social movements
435:Social darwinism
385:Social structure
277:
258:
257:
233:
226:
215:
208:
204:
201:
195:
193:
152:
128:
120:
113:
106:
102:
99:
93:
67:
66:
59:
48:
26:
25:
18:
3854:
3853:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3844:
3843:
3819:
3818:
3817:
3812:
3752:
3711:Research ethics
3657:
3556:Reverse salient
3450:
3443:
3219:
3212:
3203:Sociotechnology
3147:
3059:
3024:
3001:
2996:
2966:
2961:
2949:
2937:
2919:
2866:
2833:
2791:Social sciences
2785:
2732:
2694:
2618:
2562:
2553:
2522:
2517:
2487:
2482:
2470:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2384:Social equality
2317:
2316:
2315:
2242:
2056:Major theorists
2047:
1891:
1888:Urban sociology
1863:Rural sociology
1815:
1808:
1807:
1806:
1777:Critical theory
1772:Conflict theory
1758:
1739:Social research
1726:General aspects
1720:
1692:
1687:
1657:
1656:
1640:
1636:
1629:
1615:
1611:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1573:
1513:Albert Einstein
1505:
1489:Paul Feyerabend
1438:Albert Einstein
1397:Paul Feyerabend
1373:
1367:
1331:
1278:first World War
1170:reproducibility
1146:
1140:
1128:science studies
1108:
1068:
1061:
1060:
1021:
1011:
1010:
938:
864:
850:
848:Major theorists
840:
839:
775:
765:
764:
455:
445:
444:
415:Critical theory
410:Conflict theory
405:
395:
394:
365:Social equality
306:
234:
223:
222:
221:
216:
205:
199:
196:
153:
151:
141:
129:
114:
103:
97:
94:
87:
68:
64:
27:
23:
12:
11:
5:
3852:
3842:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3734:
3733:
3728:
3721:Science policy
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3676:Digital divide
3673:
3667:
3665:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3650:
3649:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3620:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3592:Technological
3590:
3589:
3588:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3537:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3469:Design studies
3466:
3461:
3455:
3453:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3429:
3424:
3423:
3422:
3412:
3407:
3405:Scientometrics
3402:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3342:
3341:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3278:Paradigm shift
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3224:
3222:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3171:
3163:
3157:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3118:Postpositivism
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3078:Antipositivism
3075:
3069:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3057:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3048:and technology
3040:
3034:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3011:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2995:
2994:
2987:
2980:
2972:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2959:
2947:
2935:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2880:Human medicine
2876:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2843:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2795:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2742:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2626:
2624:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2539:Historiography
2536:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2523:
2516:
2515:
2508:
2501:
2493:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2467:
2455:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2436:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2340:Human behavior
2337:
2332:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2033:stratification
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1899:
1897:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1818:
1814:Related fields
1810:
1809:
1805:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1730:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1686:
1685:
1678:
1671:
1663:
1655:
1654:
1634:
1628:978-1781251157
1627:
1609:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1572:
1569:
1504:
1501:
1476:incommensurate
1366:
1363:
1330:
1327:
1139:
1136:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1106:
1099:
1092:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1063:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1022:
1017:
1016:
1013:
1012:
866:
865:
851:
846:
845:
842:
841:
838:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
776:
771:
770:
767:
766:
763:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
475:Astrosociology
472:
467:
462:
456:
451:
450:
447:
446:
443:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
406:
401:
400:
397:
396:
393:
392:
387:
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
333:
328:
323:
321:Human behavior
318:
313:
307:
304:
303:
300:
299:
298:
297:
292:
287:
279:
278:
270:
269:
263:
262:
236:
235:
218:
217:
132:
130:
123:
116:
115:
71:
69:
62:
57:
31:
30:
28:
21:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3851:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3792:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3763:
3759:
3758:
3755:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3723:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3660:
3654:
3651:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3623:
3621:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3582:
3581:Technoscience
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3551:Media studies
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3489:Early adopter
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3459:Co-production
3457:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3446:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3308:communication
3306:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3290:Pseudoscience
3288:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3238:Boundary-work
3236:
3234:
3233:Bibliometrics
3231:
3229:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3215:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3187:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3179:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3144:
3143:Transhumanism
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3056:
3053:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2993:
2988:
2986:
2981:
2979:
2974:
2973:
2970:
2957:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2934:
2926:
2925:
2922:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2756:Combinatorics
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2735:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2723:Earth science
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2574:Ancient world
2572:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2544:Pseudoscience
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2509:
2507:
2502:
2500:
2495:
2494:
2491:
2480:
2479:
2474:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2420:
2417:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2389:Social equity
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2335:Globalization
2333:
2331:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2271:Computational
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
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1472:revolutionary
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1417:falsification
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1335:Royal Society
1326:
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1296:. During the
1295:
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1041:Organizations
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1024:
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1005:
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990: ·
989:
986: ·
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949:
946: ·
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795:Computational
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540:Environmental
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490:Consciousness
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370:Social equity
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316:Globalization
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200:December 2008
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164:
161: –
160:
156:
155:Find sources:
149:
145:
139:
138:
133:This article
131:
127:
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91:
86:
82:
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61:
60:
55:
53:
46:
45:
40:
39:
34:
29:
20:
19:
16:
3796:Associations
3631:criticism of
3541:Leapfrogging
3524:linear model
3410:Team science
3400:Scientocracy
3323:Neo-colonial
3197:
3073:Anthropocene
2895:Neuroscience
2799:Anthropology
2781:Trigonometry
2533:
2469:
2462:
2450:
2426:
2394:Social power
2296:Mathematical
2276:Ethnographic
2256:Quantitative
2023:small groups
1896:Sociology of
1823:Anthropology
1763:Perspectives
1641:
1637:
1618:
1612:
1601:
1561:
1548:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1506:
1497:
1485:
1456:
1450:
1430:Isaac Newton
1401:
1374:
1332:
1318:
1282:World War II
1270:universities
1267:
1256:
1221:
1215:for alleged
1194:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1118:—related to
1115:
1113:
1026:Bibliography
940:
868:
867:
854:
820:Mathematical
800:Ethnographic
780:Quantitative
698:
465:Architecture
403:Perspectives
375:Social power
247:room of the
224:
206:
197:
187:
180:
173:
166:
154:
142:Please help
137:verification
134:
104:
95:
88:Please help
84:
73:
49:
42:
36:
35:Please help
32:
15:
3641:theories of
3626:and society
3622:Technology
3616:transitions
3606:determinism
3601:convergence
3576:Technocracy
3358:controversy
3344:Scientific
3328:post-normal
3273:Metascience
3243:Consilience
3228:Antiscience
3093:Neo-Luddism
3088:Fuzzy logic
2862:Engineering
2804:Archaeology
2771:Probability
2738:Mathematics
2604:Romanticism
2589:Renaissance
2464:WikiProject
2266:Comparative
2261:Qualitative
2228:Baudrillard
2078:Tocqueville
1973:immigration
1948:environment
1833:Criminology
1453:Thomas Kuhn
1409:Karl Popper
1393:Thomas Kuhn
1389:Karl Popper
1294:atomic bomb
1213:Pope Paul V
1166:peer review
1031:Terminology
1000:Baudrillard
876:Tocqueville
790:Comparative
785:Qualitative
755:Victimology
585:Immigration
570:Generations
485:Criminology
92:if you can.
3823:Categories
3779:Technology
3731:science of
3726:history of
3611:revolution
3519:disruptive
3509:Innovation
3504:Hype cycle
3449:Technology
3420:ecological
3393:skepticism
3383:misconduct
3368:enterprise
3186:scientific
3113:Positivism
3083:Empiricism
3065:Philosophy
2839:Technology
2824:Psychology
2776:Statistics
2623:By culture
2527:Background
2428:Categories
2369:Popularity
2322:Key themes
2286:Historical
2038:technology
1843:Demography
1787:Positivism
1593:References
1553:phlogiston
1499:progress.
1493:witchcraft
1442:Relativity
1369:See also:
1292:, and the
1056:By country
810:Historical
735:Technology
675:Punishment
660:Philosophy
635:Mathematic
625:Literature
590:Industrial
580:Historical
505:Demography
425:Positivism
350:Popularity
305:Key themes
170:newspapers
98:April 2020
38:improve it
3686:Factor 10
3514:diffusion
3353:consensus
3348:community
3313:education
3153:Sociology
3128:Scientism
3007:Economics
2933:Timelines
2910:Pathology
2905:Nutrition
2829:Sociology
2809:Economics
2718:Chemistry
2708:Astronomy
2645:Byzantine
2640:Brazilian
2635:Argentine
2291:Interview
2073:Martineau
1978:knowledge
1938:education
1933:economics
1690:Sociology
1464:paradigms
1426:Aristotle
1259:empirical
1185:Gutenberg
1120:sociology
872:Martineau
815:Interview
740:Terrorism
720:Sociology
665:Political
605:Knowledge
525:Education
267:Sociology
44:talk page
3806:Scholars
3801:Journals
3791:Category
3765:Portals
3646:transfer
3636:dynamics
3586:feminist
3388:priority
3373:literacy
3333:rhetoric
3299:Science
3263:Logology
2956:Category
2915:Pharmacy
2872:Medicine
2761:Geometry
2751:Calculus
2670:Japanese
2439:Journals
2350:Identity
2233:Bourdieu
2223:Habermas
2218:Luhmann
2213:Foucault
2148:Mannheim
2123:Durkheim
2008:religion
1998:military
1993:medicine
1943:emotions
1928:deviance
1711:Timeline
1571:See also
1565:Internet
1539:. While
1481:paradigm
1355:Zheng He
1351:Shen Kuo
1314:Internet
1298:Cold War
1290:rocketry
1274:industry
1263:Lagrange
1240:Florence
1207:1560 by
1162:feedback
1051:Timeline
1036:Journals
1004:Bourdieu
996:Habermas
992:Luhmann
988:Foucault
932:Mannheim
912:Durkheim
685:Religion
645:Military
610:Language
595:Internet
550:Feminist
534:Jealousy
520:Economic
515:Disaster
510:Deviance
453:Branches
331:Identity
245:Pharmacy
74:require
3769:Science
3451:studies
3363:dissent
3303:citizen
3220:studies
3218:Science
3165:Social
3030:History
2890:Anatomy
2814:History
2746:Algebra
2728:Physics
2713:Biology
2690:Spanish
2685:Russian
2680:Mexican
2655:Chinese
2630:African
2452:Commons
2330:Society
2247:Methods
2238:Giddens
2203:Goffman
2198:Schoeck
2143:Du Bois
2108:Tönnies
2088:Spencer
2018:science
1988:leisure
1918:culture
1706:History
1701:Outline
1582:Inquiry
1549:missing
1422:physics
1359:Galileo
1347:Alhazen
1310:ARPANET
1232:Galileo
1217:sorcery
1132:science
1008:Giddens
1006:·
1002:·
994:·
982:·
980:Goffman
976:Schoeck
962:·
954:·
930:·
928:Du Bois
926:·
918:·
914:·
906:·
900:Tönnies
898:·
884:Spencer
882:·
860:·
773:Methods
750:Utopian
695:Science
640:Medical
630:Marxist
620:Leisure
530:Emotion
495:Culture
311:Society
290:Outline
285:History
184:scholar
76:cleanup
3663:Policy
3596:change
3529:system
3378:method
3318:normal
2944:Portal
2675:Korean
2660:Indian
2650:French
2567:By era
2311:Survey
2208:Bauman
2183:Nisbet
2178:Merton
2168:Gehlen
2163:Adorno
2128:Addams
2118:Simmel
2113:Veblen
2103:Pareto
2093:Le Bon
2068:Sieyès
1968:health
1963:gender
1953:family
1648:
1625:
1537:oxygen
1468:normal
1395:, and
1254:1700.
1252:Berlin
1205:Naples
1046:People
984:Bauman
964:Nisbet
960:Merton
952:Gehlen
948:Adorno
941:1900s:
916:Addams
908:Simmel
904:Veblen
896:Pareto
888:Le Bon
869:1800s:
862:Sieyès
855:1700s:
835:Survey
760:Visual
670:Public
575:Health
565:Gender
555:Fiscal
545:Family
186:
179:
172:
165:
157:
2766:Logic
2434:lists
2188:Mills
2158:Fromm
2153:Elias
2138:Weber
2063:Comte
2028:space
2013:sport
1923:death
1716:Index
1306:DARPA
1286:radar
1187:-era
1019:Lists
968:Mills
944:Fromm
936:Elias
924:Weber
858:Comte
745:Urban
730:Sport
725:Space
690:Rural
650:Music
600:Jewry
500:Death
460:Aging
295:Index
253:Spain
191:JSTOR
177:books
3534:user
3437:STEM
3338:wars
2193:Bell
2173:Aron
2133:Mead
2098:Ward
2083:Marx
2043:work
1958:food
1908:body
1646:ISBN
1623:ISBN
1543:and
1302:USSR
1228:Rome
1168:and
1122:and
1114:The
972:Bell
956:Aron
920:Mead
892:Ward
880:Marx
560:Food
480:Body
163:news
1983:law
1903:art
1511:or
1424:of
1407:by
615:Law
470:Art
146:by
3825::
2362:/
2358:/
1520:.
1483:.
1391:,
1380:.
1288:,
1238:,
1219:.
998:·
978:·
974:·
970:·
966:·
958:·
950:·
934:·
922:·
910:·
902:·
894:·
890:·
886:·
874:·
343:/
339:/
251:,
47:.
2991:e
2984:t
2977:v
2512:e
2505:t
2498:v
2364:5
2360:4
2356:3
1682:e
1675:t
1668:v
1631:.
1103:e
1096:t
1089:v
701:)
697:(
536:)
532:(
345:5
341:4
337:3
231:)
225:(
213:)
207:(
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188:·
181:·
174:·
167:·
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111:)
105:(
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50:(
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