1739:
277:) and five east-migrating rifts. These transform faults and migrating rifts are located were the SEIR reaches its maximum axial depths. The first-order transform faults are off-set 2â17 km (1.2â10.6 mi) by 19 non-transform discontinuities, resulting in 18â180 km (11â112 mi)-long second-order segments. The flanks of the SEIR are dominated by fracture zones perpendicular to the ridge and gravitational lineations oblique to the spreading direction and sometimes zigzag-shaped. This suggests that the SEIR evolves rapidly within the framework of the stable transform faults.
1547:
365:) when the Kerguelen hotspot separated Broken Ridge from the rest of the Kerguelen Plateau. The SEIR has been migrating northeast since and is now located 1,400 km (870 mi) from the Kerguelen hotspot. The ASP hotspot was originally located beneath Australia and a chain of seamounts connecting it to the southern end of the Ninety East Ridge, i.e. the ASP hotspot track, indicate it probably contributed to the formation of the Ninety East Ridge before the SEIR opened.
2361:
1612:
2385:
1624:
2373:
234:
Kerguelen hotspot and the propagation of the SEIR rift fracture has separated them. Many recent authors do not try to portray a continuous connection between Broken Ridge which has
Kerguele plume basalts formed 37 Ma ago and the Kerguelen plateau basalts formed between 37 Ma and now for several reasons, including that the ocean floor south of the ASP Plateau and north of the Kerguele Plateau is poorly studied.
2397:
20:
252:(212 °F) caused by a magma flow from the KerguelenâASP hotspots to the AAD 'cold spot' at 120â128°E. Located at 126°E, the AAD would thus mark the 40 km (25 mi)-long transition between Indian Ocean and Pacific MORBs (mid-ocean ridge basalts), a boundary that has been migrating westward during the past tens of million years.
155:. The SEIR has an intermediate full spreading rate of 65 mm/a (2.6 in/year), and, because Antarctica is virtually stationary, this results in a northward ridge migration of half that rate. Spreading rates along the SEIR varies from 69 mm/a (2.7 in/year) near 88°E to 75 mm/a (3.0 in/year) near 120°E.
192:
Both
Amsterdam and St. Paul are located on the Antarctic Plate side within 40 km (25 mi) of the SEIR. North-east of the ASP Plateau a string of submarine volcanoes, the Chain of the Dead Poets, 1â3 km (0.62â1.86 mi)-high and 40 km (25 mi)-wide, mark the track of the ASP
379:
from where it propagated eastward at about 2 cm/year (0.79 in/year). This rifting was not the direct product of hotspot interaction as it occurred over a cooler than normal mantle. Initially spreading was extremely slow, a half rate of 2â6 mm/a (0.079â0.236 in/year) during the
180:
activity has produced a 150 km Ă 200 km (93 mi Ă 124 mi) plateau straddling on the SEIR. This
AmsterdamâSt. Paul Plateau while formed in the last 10 million years, started this formation beneath the Australian Plate so the plateau is now built on the components of two
233:
The
Kerguelen hotspot, located more than 1,000 km (620 mi) from the SEIR currently, also influences the MORB composition of the SEIR near the ASP Plateau. About 43 to 40 Ma ago, Broken Ridge to the north and the Kerguelen plateau to its far south were adjacent, having been formed by the
259:
suggest the presence of oblique extensional forces while the presence of a long, elevated ridge near the 96°E right-stepping transform suggests a compressional force is also active. Together these features indicate the two tectonic plate made a recent counter-clockwise change in relative motion.
247:
hotspots, the AAD overlies a region where cooler mantle temperatures have produced a thin oceanic crust and a rough topography with deep valleys. The AAD is found between 120° and 128° E and covers about 500 km (310 mi) of the SEIR which at this point is deep mid-ocean ridge at between
160:
Approximate surface projections that illustrate
Amsterdam Saint Paul hotspot with the mantle Bouguer abnormality mapped in red shading to indicate the likely current plume location. Also shown is the approximate outline of the Amsterdam Saint Paul Plateau (brown), the Boomerang Seamount (blue),
251:
Between the AAD and the
Amsterdam and St. Paul islands, spreading rate is constant at 69â75 mm/a (2.7â3.0 in/year) while axial depth increases by more than 2,300 m (7,500 ft). This has been interpreted as an eastward decrease in mantle temperature of perhaps 100 °C
1325:
Dubinina, E.P.; Galushkina, Y.I.; Grokholskiia, A.L.; Kokhanb, A.V.; Sushchevskaya, N.M. (2017). "Hot and Cold Zones of the
Southeast Indian Ridge and Their Influence on the Peculiarities of Its Structure and Magmatism (Numerical and Physical Modelling)".
1406:
Zhou, Q.; Liu, Z.; Lai, Y.; Wang, G.C.; Liao, Z.; Li, Y.X.; Wu, J.Y.; Wang, S.; Qing, C.S. (2018). "Petrogenesis of mafic and felsic rocks from the Comei large igneous province, South Tibet: Implications for the initial activity of the
Kerguelen plume".
161:
nearby subsurface transform faults (grey), fracture zones (orange), their probable extensions (light orange) and plate boundary (white) as referred to in text of article. Clicking on the map to enlarge it enables mouse over of feature names.
242:
Trending east-west between
Australia and Antarctica, the SEIR traverses the Australian-Antarctic Discordance (AAD), a morphologically complex region overlying an area of mantle down-welling. Located midway between the ASP-Kerguelen and the
212:, 18 km (11 mi) north of Amsterdam Island near the SEIR. Analyses of the isotope composition of basalts recovered from its caldera support that the ASP hotspot contributed to the formation of the southern Ninety East Ridge.
1355:
Kumar, P.; Singha, P.; Ghosal, D.; Jacob, J.; Gupta, S. (2023). "Lithospheric architecture beneath the
Amsterdam-St. Paul plateau, Southern Indian Ocean using the integrated gravity, magnetic and seismological study".
1385:
Doucet, S.; Weis, D.; Scoates, J.S.; Debaille, V.; Giret, A. (2004). "Geochemical and HfâPbâSrâNd isotopic constraints on the origin of the AmsterdamâSt. Paul (Indian Ocean) hotspot basalts".
181:
tectonic plates (see Kumar et al. for diagram of this complex process). For several reasons, including that the composition at and near Amsterdam and Saint Paul Island is distinct from other
208:
when the SEIR started to interact with it and the hotspot started to build the shallow plateau. There is an active submarine volcano, the 1,100 m (3,600 ft)-high
435:
570:, 6.3. Horizontal extent of the ASP plume magma supply, Fig. 6. Schematic diagram depicting interaction of the ASP plume and the SEIR since ~20 Ma in different stages
1738:
400:
407:
basins to the north. The AAD forms a saddle across the channel while also offering the deepest connection between the Australian and South Indian basins.
1245:
Full-fit reconstructions of the southern Australian margin and Antarctica â implications for correlating geology between Australia and Antarctica
189:. The ASP Plateau covers an area of 30,000 km (12,000 sq mi) and rises 500 m (1,600 ft) above the surrounding seafloor.
2416:
2455:
1125:
963:
Johnson, K. T. M.; Graham, D. W.; Rubin, K. H.; Nicolaysen, K.; Scheirer, D. S.; Forsyth, D. W.; Baker, E. T.; Douglas-Priebe, L. M. (2000).
1458:
1661:
844:"The Southeast Indian Ridge between 88 E and 118 E: Gravity anomalies and crustal accretion at intermediate spreading rates"
2108:
922:"Hotspotâridge interaction along the Southeast Indian Ridge near Amsterdam and St. Paul islands: helium isotope evidence"
2286:
1526:
263:
Between 88°E and 118°E there are nine transform faults offsetting the SEIR 21â135 km (13â84 mi) of an age of
921:
89:
2401:
344:
have been identified as Cambrian remains of the west-dipping subduction zone along the eastern margin of Gondwana.
54:
2306:
1451:
1171:"The Southeast Indian Ridge between 88°E and 118°E: Variations in crustal accretion at constant spreading rate"
1051:"Between a hotspot and a cold spot: isotopic variation in the Southeast Indian Ridge asthenosphere, 86°Eâ118°E"
422:. This redistribution of sediments has occurred during the last 40000 years. Elevated contributions during the
1747:
1678:
414:
drift along the southern flank of SEIR. Volcanic in origin, it is most likely derived from the slopes of the
1835:
1654:
1263:"The Ninetyeast Ridge and its relation to the Kerguelen, Amsterdam and St. Paul hotspots in the Indian Ocean"
427:
1124:
Scheirer, D. S.; Forsyth, D. W.; Conder, J. A.; Eberle, M.; Hung, S. H.; Johnson, K.; Graham, D. W. (2000).
1007:
2191:
1049:
Mahoney, J. J.; Graham, D. W.; Christie, D. M.; Johnson, K. T. M.; Hall, L. S.; Vonderhaar, D. L. (2002).
2008:
2048:
1444:
965:"Boomerang Seamount: The active expression of the AmsterdamâSt. Paul hotspot, Southeast Indian Ridge"
457:
230:
and be relevant to the formation of the SEIR later but this relevance is still not fully understood.
83:
48:
294:
185:
material, this has suggested to many that the AmsterdamâSt. Paul hotspot (ASP) is separate from the
2389:
1647:
2239:
293:
and several conjugate structures exist on either side of the SEIR. In south-western Australia the
2377:
2281:
1571:
1521:
1290:"Variable melt production rate of the Kerguelen hotspot due to longâterm plumeâridge interaction"
882:"Evidence for strong sediment redistribution by bottom currents along the southeast Indian ridge"
248:
4,000â4,500 m (13,100â14,800 ft) in the centre of the AustralianâAntarctic depression.
226:
The Kerguelen plume is likely to have played a role in the breakup of eastern Gondwana about 136
1943:
1903:
1126:"Anomalous seafloor spreading of the Southeast Indian Ridge near the Amsterdam-St. Paul plateau"
2334:
2296:
2274:
2028:
1591:
1536:
452:
431:
1701:
980:
940:
2209:
2131:
2121:
2068:
2063:
2003:
1868:
1805:
1728:
1718:
1546:
1481:
1416:
1365:
1220:
1182:
1140:
1097:
1062:
1022:
976:
936:
893:
858:
447:
423:
337:
1908:
8:
2324:
2093:
1858:
1576:
313:
1420:
1369:
1224:
1205:
1186:
1144:
1101:
1066:
1026:
897:
862:
843:
2339:
2329:
2254:
2249:
2146:
1993:
1938:
1795:
1596:
1581:
1516:
1511:
1206:"Threeâdimensional structure of asthenospheric flow beneath the Southeast Indian Ridge"
396:
309:
209:
1398:
988:
948:
905:
2259:
2224:
2058:
1998:
1988:
1948:
1883:
1491:
1343:
1243:
1085:
964:
881:
415:
306:
221:
198:
186:
182:
177:
152:
141:
149:
2264:
1963:
1848:
1706:
1424:
1394:
1373:
1335:
1311:
1301:
1274:
1228:
1190:
1148:
1105:
1070:
1030:
984:
944:
901:
866:
255:
Between 102°E and the AAD, where the spreading rate is constant, the left-stepping
134:
122:
1075:
1050:
145:
2269:
2204:
2088:
1923:
1918:
1873:
1863:
1853:
1770:
1691:
1670:
1467:
256:
244:
193:
hotspot across the Australian Plate. This track leads to the intersection of the
126:
36:
1377:
2365:
2229:
2181:
2136:
2098:
2053:
1953:
1893:
1843:
1775:
1696:
1616:
1586:
1496:
1279:
1262:
1170:
419:
369:
325:
321:
320:
on the Australian west coast has a possible continuation beneath the Antarctic
298:
1339:
2449:
2431:
2418:
2344:
2176:
2166:
2161:
2151:
2141:
2126:
2043:
2013:
1983:
1968:
1958:
1933:
1928:
1825:
1800:
1760:
1755:
1723:
1686:
1628:
1347:
341:
317:
302:
118:
104:
91:
69:
56:
1248:. Proceedings of the Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium IV. Brisbane, QLD
1109:
324:. Archaean and Paleoproterzoic rocks in the Kalinjala Mylonite Zone of the
2234:
2116:
2038:
2033:
2018:
1898:
1888:
1815:
1810:
1785:
1711:
1501:
404:
329:
194:
47:
plate boundary stretching almost 6,000 km (3,700 mi) between the
40:
201:
west of Australia. The ASP hotspot ceased to produce these volcanoes some
2319:
2314:
2244:
2219:
2214:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2023:
1978:
1973:
1913:
1878:
1820:
1790:
1780:
1765:
1566:
1561:
1506:
1486:
1306:
1289:
1153:
1003:
265:
2199:
2156:
1316:
920:
Graham, D. W.; Johnson, K. T. M.; Priebe, L. D.; Lupton, J. E. (1999).
411:
395:
The SEIR divides the channel between Australia and Antarctica into the
382:
290:
2360:
1623:
1611:
1233:
1195:
1034:
1008:"Geochemistry of basalts from the Southeast Indian Ridge, 115°Eâ138°E"
871:
387:
after which it accelerated to 30â35 mm/a (1.2â1.4 in/year).
203:
2171:
1428:
1324:
717:
666:
594:
543:
374:
349:
130:
360:
1436:
333:
297:
formed during the Mesoproterozoic collision between the Australian
286:
272:
44:
1639:
1086:"Southern Ocean bottom water of the AustralianâNew Zealand sector"
522:, General Characteristics of the Southeast Indian Ridge, p. 15490
285:
Australia and Antarctica were neighbours before the break-up of
355:
1204:
West, B. P.; Wilcock, W. S.; Sempéré, J. C.; Géli, L. (1997).
880:
Dezileau, L.; Bareille, G.; Reyss, J. L.; Lemoine, F. (2000).
1260:
630:
1048:
962:
879:
825:
801:
729:
642:
1123:
555:
504:
1261:
Nobre Silva, IG; Weis, D; Scoates, JS; Barling, J (2013).
1384:
1242:
Williams, S. E.; Whittaker, J. M.; MĂŒller, R. D. (2012).
919:
618:
487:
270:, accompanied by eight first-order segments (older than
1241:
886:
Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers
792:, Tasmania-Victoria and Northern Victoria Land, pp. 4â5
789:
777:
765:
753:
23:
The Southeast Indian Ridge (denoted by the yellow line)
19:
1354:
1203:
1002:
705:
690:
606:
567:
531:
768:, Southwest Australia and Western Wilkes Land, p. 3
237:
1287:
780:, Eyre Peninsula and Eastern Wilkes Land, pp. 3â4
582:
354:but spreading in the SEIR first began during the
2447:
500:
498:
496:
140:The SEIR is the spreading centre closest to the
121:, the SEIR forms the plate boundary between the
744:, Segmentation Characteristics, pp. 15490â15495
1405:
1168:
841:
741:
678:
654:
519:
478:, The Southeast Indian Ridge, pp. 15467, 15469
475:
332:in Eastern Wilkes Land, Antarctica. Faults in
1655:
1452:
1288:Bredow, E; Steinberger, B (16 January 2018).
701:
699:
493:
171:
1213:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
1175:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
1083:
851:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
813:
588:
578:
576:
16:Mid-ocean ridge in the southern Indian Ocean
2372:
1662:
1648:
1459:
1445:
696:
316:is also associated with this orogeny. The
1315:
1305:
1278:
1232:
1194:
1152:
1074:
1006:; Langmuir, C. H.; Staudigel, H. (1991).
870:
573:
347:Australia and Antarctica broke-up around
227:
515:
513:
469:
18:
1169:Sempéré, J. C.; Cochran, J. R. (1997).
1090:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
842:Cochran, J. R.; Sempéré, J. C. (1997).
2448:
2456:Underwater ridges of the Indian Ocean
1643:
1440:
1084:Rodman, M. R.; Gordon, A. L. (1982).
790:Williams, Whittaker & MĂŒller 2012
778:Williams, Whittaker & MĂŒller 2012
766:Williams, Whittaker & MĂŒller 2012
754:Williams, Whittaker & MĂŒller 2012
510:
2396:
1466:
691:Klein, Langmuir & Staudigel 1991
215:
1669:
1387:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
969:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
929:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
280:
13:
328:, Australia, match those found in
176:During the past few million years
14:
2467:
2395:
2384:
2383:
2371:
2359:
1737:
1622:
1610:
1545:
426:are thought to be caused by the
238:AustralianâAntarctic Discordance
1133:Journal of Geophysical Research
1015:Journal of Geophysical Research
819:
807:
804:, Geologic setting, pp. 246â247
795:
783:
771:
759:
747:
735:
723:
711:
684:
672:
660:
648:
636:
624:
612:
600:
434:and their interaction with the
390:
372:began west of Australia around
2287:South AmericanâAntarctic Ridge
609:, 2. Regional tectonic setting
561:
549:
537:
525:
481:
82:) in the Indian Ocean and the
1:
1399:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00636-8
989:10.1016/s0012-821x(00)00279-x
949:10.1016/s0012-821x(99)00030-8
906:10.1016/S0967-0637(00)00008-X
834:
732:, Introduction, pp. 1155â1156
708:, Introduction, pp. 7783â7785
583:Bredow & Steinberger 2018
558:, Introduction, pp. 8243â8244
428:Antarctic Circumpolar Current
1294:Geophysical Research Letters
507:, Background, pp. 8244, 8247
7:
1378:10.1016/j.tecto.2023.229989
1076:10.1093/petrology/43.7.1155
441:
10:
2472:
2240:GalĂĄpagos Spreading Center
742:Sempéré & Cochran 1997
645:, Conclusions, pp. 256â257
520:Sempéré & Cochran 1997
476:Cochran & Sempéré 1997
219:
172:AmsterdamâSt. Paul hotspot
166:
2353:
2305:
2190:
2107:
1834:
1746:
1735:
1677:
1605:
1554:
1543:
1474:
1340:10.1134/S0016852117030049
458:Rodrigues Triple Junction
84:Macquarie Triple Junction
49:Rodrigues Triple Junction
1527:South American-Antarctic
1280:10.1093/petrology/egt009
814:Rodman & Gordon 1982
463:
436:Circumpolar Bottom Water
2432:47.346294°S 97.396675°E
2282:Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
1110:10.1029/jc087ic08p05771
981:2000E&PSL.183..245J
941:1999E&PSL.167..297G
693:, Introduction, p. 2089
631:Nobre Silva et al. 2013
377: million years ago
363: million years ago
352: million years ago
275: million years ago
2335:Pacific-Farallon Ridge
2307:Ancient oceanic ridges
2297:Southwest Indian Ridge
2292:Southeast Indian Ridge
2029:Philippine Mobile Belt
490:, Introduction, p. 298
453:Southwest Indian Ridge
432:Circumpolar Deep Water
410:There is a voluminous
29:Southeast Indian Ridge
24:
2437:-47.346294; 97.396675
816:, Bathymetry, p. 5771
399:to the south and the
22:
2210:Central Indian Ridge
1307:10.1002/2017GL075822
1267:Journal of Petrology
1154:10.1029/1999jb900407
1055:Journal of Petrology
826:Dezileau et al. 2000
756:, Introduction, p. 1
718:Dubinina et al. 2017
667:Dubinina et al. 2017
595:Dubinina et al. 2017
556:Scheirer et al. 2000
544:Dubinina et al. 2017
505:Scheirer et al. 2000
448:Central Indian Ridge
424:Last Glacial Maximum
295:Albany-Fraser Orogen
266:3.6 to 0.5
2428: /
2325:Kula-Farallon Ridge
1421:2018GSAB..130..811Z
1370:2023Tectp.86329989K
1225:1997JGR...102.7783W
1187:1997JGR...10215489S
1181:(B7): 15489â15505.
1145:2000JGR...105.8243S
1102:1982JGR....87.5771R
1067:2002JPet...43.1155M
1027:1991JGR....96.2089K
898:2000DSRI...47.1899D
863:1997JGR...10215463C
857:(B7): 15463â15487.
802:Johnson et al. 2000
730:Mahoney et al. 2002
643:Johnson et al. 2000
368:The opening of the
314:Naturaliste Plateau
101: /
66: /
2366:Geology portal
2340:Pacific-Kula Ridge
2330:Mid-Labrador Ridge
2255:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
2250:Juan de Fuca Ridge
1617:Geology portal
720:, pp. 215â216
619:Doucet et al. 2004
597:, pp. 212â215
488:Graham et al. 1999
397:South Indian Basin
383:96 to 45
210:Boomerang Seamount
25:
2411:
2410:
2225:East Pacific Rise
1637:
1636:
1629:Oceans portal
1572:Antarctic-Phoenix
1522:Pacific-Antarctic
1234:10.1029/96jb03895
1219:(B4): 7783â7802.
1196:10.1029/97jb00171
1139:(B4): 8243â8262.
1096:(C8): 5771â5778.
1035:10.1029/90jb01384
1021:(B2): 2089â2107.
892:(10): 1899â1936.
872:10.1029/97JB00511
607:Kumar et al. 2023
568:Kumar et al. 2023
532:Kumar et al. 2023
416:Kerguelen Plateau
385:million years ago
312:of the submarine
268:million years ago
245:Balleny-Tasmantid
222:Kerguelen hotspot
216:Kerguelen hotspot
206:million years ago
204:10 to 5
199:Ninety East Ridge
187:Kerguelen hotspot
183:Kerguelen hotspot
129:plates since the
2463:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2399:
2398:
2387:
2386:
2375:
2374:
2364:
2363:
2265:Kolbeinsey Ridge
1741:
1664:
1657:
1650:
1641:
1640:
1627:
1626:
1615:
1614:
1592:Pacific-Farallon
1549:
1537:Southwest Indian
1532:Southeast Indian
1468:Mid-ocean ridges
1461:
1454:
1447:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1429:10.1130/B31653.1
1415:(5â6): 811â824.
1402:
1393:(1â2): 179â195.
1381:
1351:
1321:
1319:
1309:
1284:
1282:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1238:
1236:
1210:
1200:
1198:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1156:
1130:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1080:
1078:
1061:(7): 1155â1176.
1045:
1043:
1041:
1012:
999:
997:
995:
959:
957:
955:
926:
916:
914:
912:
876:
874:
848:
829:
823:
817:
811:
805:
799:
793:
787:
781:
775:
769:
763:
757:
751:
745:
739:
733:
727:
721:
715:
709:
706:West et al. 1997
703:
694:
688:
682:
679:Zhou et al. 2018
676:
670:
664:
658:
655:Zhou et al. 2018
652:
646:
640:
634:
628:
622:
616:
610:
604:
598:
592:
586:
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571:
565:
559:
553:
547:
541:
535:
529:
523:
517:
508:
502:
491:
485:
479:
473:
401:South Australian
386:
378:
364:
353:
281:Tectonic history
276:
269:
257:transform faults
229:
207:
116:
115:
113:
112:
111:
106:
102:
99:
98:
97:
94:
81:
80:
78:
77:
76:
71:
67:
64:
63:
62:
59:
39:in the southern
2471:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2446:
2445:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2407:
2358:
2349:
2301:
2275:Reykjanes Ridge
2260:Knipovich Ridge
2205:Carlsberg Ridge
2186:
2103:
2009:North GalĂĄpagos
1830:
1742:
1733:
1702:Indo-Australian
1673:
1671:Tectonic plates
1668:
1638:
1633:
1621:
1609:
1601:
1550:
1541:
1470:
1465:
1435:
1273:(6): 1177â210.
1251:
1249:
1208:
1159:
1157:
1128:
1114:
1112:
1039:
1037:
1010:
993:
991:
953:
951:
924:
910:
908:
846:
837:
832:
824:
820:
812:
808:
800:
796:
788:
784:
776:
772:
764:
760:
752:
748:
740:
736:
728:
724:
716:
712:
704:
697:
689:
685:
677:
673:
665:
661:
653:
649:
641:
637:
629:
625:
617:
613:
605:
601:
593:
589:
581:
574:
566:
562:
554:
550:
542:
538:
530:
526:
518:
511:
503:
494:
486:
482:
474:
470:
466:
444:
393:
381:
373:
359:
348:
283:
271:
264:
240:
224:
218:
202:
174:
169:
164:
163:
162:
109:
107:
103:
100:
95:
92:
90:
88:
87:
74:
72:
68:
65:
60:
57:
55:
53:
52:
37:mid-ocean ridge
17:
12:
11:
5:
2469:
2459:
2458:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2393:
2381:
2369:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2311:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2230:Explorer Ridge
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2196:
2194:
2192:Oceanic ridges
2188:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2122:Bellingshausen
2119:
2113:
2111:
2109:Ancient plates
2105:
2104:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2069:South Sandwich
2066:
2064:South Bismarck
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2004:North Bismarck
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1944:Juan FernĂĄndez
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1752:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1731:
1729:South American
1726:
1721:
1719:North American
1716:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1683:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1667:
1666:
1659:
1652:
1644:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1619:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1600:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1587:Osbourn Trough
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1551:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1482:Central Indian
1478:
1476:
1472:
1471:
1464:
1463:
1456:
1449:
1441:
1434:
1433:
1403:
1382:
1358:Tectonophysics
1352:
1334:(3): 209â229.
1322:
1285:
1258:
1239:
1201:
1166:
1121:
1081:
1046:
1000:
975:(1): 245â259.
960:
935:(3): 297â310.
917:
877:
838:
836:
833:
831:
830:
818:
806:
794:
782:
770:
758:
746:
734:
722:
710:
695:
683:
671:
669:, pp. 215
659:
647:
635:
633:, p. 1177
623:
611:
599:
587:
572:
560:
548:
536:
524:
509:
492:
480:
467:
465:
462:
461:
460:
455:
450:
443:
440:
420:Crozet Islands
392:
389:
370:Southern Ocean
326:Eyre Peninsula
322:Denman Glacier
301:and Antarctic
282:
279:
239:
236:
220:Main article:
217:
214:
173:
170:
168:
165:
159:
158:
157:
43:. A divergent
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2468:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2444:
2441:
2404:
2403:
2394:
2392:
2391:
2382:
2380:
2379:
2370:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2352:
2346:
2345:Phoenix Ridge
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2304:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1859:Balmoral Reef
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1653:
1651:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1577:Kula-Farallon
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1457:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1300:(1): 126â36.
1299:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1122:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1009:
1005:
1001:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
961:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
923:
918:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
878:
873:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
845:
840:
839:
827:
822:
815:
810:
803:
798:
791:
786:
779:
774:
767:
762:
755:
750:
743:
738:
731:
726:
719:
714:
707:
702:
700:
692:
687:
680:
675:
668:
663:
657:, p. 811
656:
651:
644:
639:
632:
627:
621:, p. 180
620:
615:
608:
603:
596:
591:
585:, p. 128
584:
579:
577:
569:
564:
557:
552:
545:
540:
533:
528:
521:
516:
514:
506:
501:
499:
497:
489:
484:
477:
472:
468:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
445:
439:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
388:
384:
376:
371:
366:
362:
357:
351:
345:
343:
342:Victoria Land
340:and Northern
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
318:Darling Fault
315:
311:
308:
305:cratons. The
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
278:
274:
267:
261:
258:
253:
249:
246:
235:
231:
223:
213:
211:
205:
200:
196:
190:
188:
184:
179:
156:
154:
151:
147:
143:
138:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
119:Pacific Ocean
114:
85:
79:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
21:
2413:
2400:
2388:
2376:
2357:
2291:
2235:Gakkel Ridge
2147:Intermontane
1939:Juan de Fuca
1796:New Hebrides
1748:Minor plates
1679:Major plates
1597:Pacific-Kula
1582:Mid-Labrador
1531:
1517:Mid-Atlantic
1512:Juan de Fuca
1492:East Pacific
1412:
1409:GSA Bulletin
1408:
1390:
1386:
1361:
1357:
1331:
1328:Geotectonics
1327:
1297:
1293:
1270:
1266:
1252:24 September
1250:. Retrieved
1244:
1216:
1212:
1178:
1174:
1158:. Retrieved
1136:
1132:
1115:25 September
1113:. Retrieved
1093:
1089:
1058:
1054:
1038:. Retrieved
1018:
1014:
1004:Klein, E. M.
994:24 September
992:. Retrieved
972:
968:
952:. Retrieved
932:
928:
911:25 September
909:. Retrieved
889:
885:
854:
850:
821:
809:
797:
785:
773:
761:
749:
737:
725:
713:
686:
674:
662:
650:
638:
626:
614:
602:
590:
563:
551:
539:
527:
483:
471:
409:
394:
391:Oceanography
367:
346:
330:Terre Adelie
284:
262:
254:
250:
241:
232:
225:
195:Broken Ridge
191:
175:
139:
41:Indian Ocean
32:
28:
26:
2435: /
2320:Alpha Ridge
2315:Aegir Ridge
2270:Mohns Ridge
2245:Gorda Ridge
2220:Cocos Ridge
2215:Chile Ridge
2059:Solomon Sea
1999:North Andes
1989:Molucca Sea
1884:Conway Reef
1869:Bird's Head
1836:Microplates
1317:10852/70913
307:continental
137: 13).
108: /
73: /
2423:97°23âČ48âłE
2420:47°20âČ47âłS
2200:Aden Ridge
2049:Seychelles
1964:Madagascar
1849:Aegean Sea
1806:Philippine
1707:Australian
1364:: 229989.
835:References
828:, Abstract
534:, Fig. 5b.
412:contourite
291:Cretaceous
150:Saint-Paul
123:Australian
105:63°S 165°E
2089:Trobriand
1994:Niuafoâou
1949:Kerguelen
1924:Halmahera
1919:Greenland
1904:GalĂĄpagos
1874:Capricorn
1864:Banda Sea
1854:Anatolian
1771:Caribbean
1692:Antarctic
1348:0016-8521
1160:14 August
1040:14 August
954:14 August
546:, Fig. 4.
146:Amsterdam
142:Kerguelen
131:Oligocene
127:Antarctic
117:) in the
70:25°S 70°E
2450:Category
2390:Category
2182:Kshiroda
2167:Malvinas
2137:Farallon
2132:Cimmeria
2099:Woodlark
2094:Victoria
2054:Shetland
1954:Kermadec
1894:Explorer
1844:Adriatic
1776:Caroline
1697:Eurasian
1497:Explorer
681:, Fig 1.
442:See also
338:Victoria
334:Tasmania
310:basement
287:Gondwana
153:hotspots
110:-63; 165
45:tectonic
2402:Commons
2177:Phoenix
2152:Izanagi
2142:Insular
2127:Charcot
2044:Sangihe
2014:Okinawa
1984:Mariana
1969:Malpelo
1959:Lwandle
1934:Iranian
1929:Iberian
1826:Yangtze
1801:Okhotsk
1761:Arabian
1756:Amurian
1724:Pacific
1687:African
1475:Present
1417:Bibcode
1366:Bibcode
1221:Bibcode
1183:Bibcode
1141:Bibcode
1098:Bibcode
1063:Bibcode
1023:Bibcode
977:Bibcode
937:Bibcode
894:Bibcode
859:Bibcode
380:period
299:Yilgarn
289:in the
178:hotspot
167:Geology
135:anomaly
75:-25; 70
35:) is a
2117:Baltic
2039:Rovuma
2034:Rivera
2019:Panama
1909:GonĂąve
1899:Futuna
1889:Easter
1816:Somali
1811:Scotia
1786:Indian
1712:Indian
1555:Former
1502:Gakkel
1346:
405:Tasman
356:Eocene
303:Mawson
2162:Lhasa
2084:Tonga
2079:Tisza
2074:Timor
2024:Pelso
1979:Maoke
1974:Manus
1914:Gorda
1879:Coiba
1821:Sunda
1791:Nazca
1781:Cocos
1766:Burma
1567:Alpha
1562:Aegir
1507:Gorda
1487:Chile
1209:(PDF)
1129:(PDF)
1011:(PDF)
925:(PDF)
847:(PDF)
464:Notes
96:165°E
2378:List
2157:Kula
1344:ISSN
1254:2016
1162:2016
1117:2016
1042:2016
996:2016
956:2016
913:2016
430:and
418:and
403:and
197:and
144:and
125:and
93:63°S
61:70°E
58:25°S
33:SEIR
27:The
2172:Moa
1425:doi
1413:130
1395:doi
1391:218
1374:doi
1362:863
1336:doi
1312:hdl
1302:doi
1275:doi
1229:doi
1217:102
1191:doi
1179:102
1149:doi
1137:105
1106:doi
1071:doi
1031:doi
985:doi
973:183
945:doi
933:167
902:doi
867:doi
855:102
375:100
350:110
2452::
1423:.
1411:.
1389:.
1372:.
1360:.
1342:.
1332:51
1330:.
1310:.
1298:45
1296:.
1292:.
1271:54
1269:.
1265:.
1227:.
1215:.
1211:.
1189:.
1177:.
1173:.
1147:.
1135:.
1131:.
1104:.
1094:87
1092:.
1088:.
1069:.
1059:43
1057:.
1053:.
1029:.
1019:96
1017:.
1013:.
983:.
971:.
967:.
943:.
931:.
927:.
900:.
890:47
888:.
884:.
865:.
853:.
849:.
698:^
575:^
512:^
495:^
438:.
361:40
228:Ma
1663:e
1656:t
1649:v
1460:e
1453:t
1446:v
1431:.
1427::
1419::
1401:.
1397::
1380:.
1376::
1368::
1350:.
1338::
1320:.
1314::
1304::
1283:.
1277::
1256:.
1237:.
1231::
1223::
1199:.
1193::
1185::
1164:.
1151::
1143::
1119:.
1108::
1100::
1079:.
1073::
1065::
1044:.
1033::
1025::
998:.
987::
979::
958:.
947::
939::
915:.
904::
896::
875:.
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