372:
220:Åmark writes that "neutrality was not only the official policy of the government during the war, it was also the recommended attitude for Swedish citizens. A Swede should sit down in the boat, and not engage himself or herself in public demonstrations for or against any of the states at war." In order to maintain its neutrality, national newspapers was censored and the government "really tried to suppress information on Nazi German brutality in general and on persecution of Jews and the Holocaust". Nonetheless, there was some sympathy for Nazi war aims and
143:
114:, Swedes largely rejected extremist Nazi policies and brutality. Yet, the combination of interest in racial categorisation and narrow nationalism coupled with a tradition of national self-preoccupation meant that most failed to appreciate the urgency of the pre-war plight of Jewish refugees. Many Swedes were only one generation away from grinding poverty, disease and malnutrition, both urban and rural. Not surprisingly, their first concern was for their own economic welfare.
563:
321:
to their counterparts in other liberal democracies, chose increasingly often to engage in direct efforts to save Jews. Where they had earlier stood indifferent to the plight of some few Jews, they came to understand that their previous response had been inadequate. Crucially, these mostly mid-level officials were supported by their political superiors."
432:, Soviet forces captured Budapest in December 1944 and Wallenberg was detained and disappeared. It is generally considered that he died or was executed in Soviet captivity, perhaps in 1947. It was initially believed that Wallenberg's actions had saved as many as 100,000 Jews; more recent estimates put the number at 7,000 to 9,000.
542:
in 1998. In 2018, the
Swedish government announced its intention to build a Holocaust museum intended to "focus on surviving Swedes and collect items, interviews and documents about their experiences". It also announced its intention to establish a "centre" devoted to Wallenberg. Although delayed, it
320:
notes that "Sweden's government and people responded with a distressing lack of generosity towards those few Jews who needed help and were in a situation where
Swedish help - both in the 1930s and early 1940s - might have made a difference". However, he noted that "some Swedish officials, in contrast
277:
since 1933, their coverage on the escalating persecution of Jews was uneven. Provincial conservative newspapers, in particular, published little on the subject until the Allied liberation of the camps in 1945. In spite of this, the
Swedish press began to publish detailed accounts of the extermination
118:
Sweden introduced controls on immigration for the first time in 1927 and subsequently tightened them further in 1938. This was motivated by "fear of large, uncontrolled streams of refugees", particularly
Eastern Europeans and Jews. Around 3,000 Jewish refugees from Germany arrived in Sweden in 1939.
53:
did not become a mainstream political issue and Swedes were broadly critical of the violence of Nazi policy. In spite of this, the country continued to tighten its immigration laws and admitted few Jewish refugees from Nazi persecution. As part of the official policy of neutrality, Sweden maintained
252:
in June 1941 marked an intensification in Nazi persecution of Jews. Mass killings soon began within occupied territories in the Soviet Union. The decision to begin the rounding up and deportation of Jews from other parts of German-occupied Europe for extermination had been taken by
January 1942. In
519:
Since the 1990s, the issue of praise or blame to attach to the country's response to the
Holocaust has become a contentious political subject in Sweden. Substantial public discussion about the degree of Swedish awareness of the Holocaust took place in the aftermath of the publication of the novel
479:
In the post-war years, the
Swedish government placed emphasis on its humanitarian actions to save Jews as a means of deflecting criticism of its economic and political relations with Nazi Germany. Historian Ingrid Lomfors states that this "sowed the seed of the image of Sweden as a 'humanitarian
492:
Swedish students have been taught that rather than assist "one side" or the other in pursuing their sordid nationalistic goals (and in fact the vast majority of Swedes wished for an Allied victory), their leaders 'fought' for peace - higher, more noble ideals than the ones motivating the
402:(WRB), the United States government had issued a request to neutral powers to expand their diplomatic legations in Hungary in May 1944 in the hope that a large number of foreign observers might encourage the new regime to moderate its policy ahead of the advance of Soviet forces on the
417:
Wallenberg arrived in July 1944. He was authorised to issue various forms of protective passes to Jews as the legation had already been doing on a small-scale on its own initiative. He ultimately issued several hundred visas and 10,000 protective passes with the aid of the
Swedish
466:
and was initially aimed at the rescue solely of inmates of Danish and
Norwegian origin. 15,000 civilians, predominately Norwegian and Danish political prisoners, were evacuated by the Swedish Red Cross before May 1945. However, several hundred Danish Jews interned in the
208:
which primarily favoured Nazi
Germany and German-occupied Europe. Åmark notes that "Germany evidently got what it mostly needed from Sweden" and never seriously considered mounting an invasion. Controversially, the Swedish government also allowed German soldiers on leave
493:
belligerents. As a result of this interpretation, Swedish memory of the war is suffused with a sometimes rather smug sense of moral superiority, yet crucially, one shadowed by a lingering sense of guilt at not having participated in the struggle against Nazism.
98:) which emerged in 1933. John Gilmour writes "in its anti-semitic characteristics Sweden in the 1930s was in step with most other main-stream, democratic European societies". Although discrimination and violence against Jews after the seizure of power by the
54:
ties with Nazi Germany throughout the Second World War. Swedish diplomats were aware of the extermination of Jews as early as January 1942 but took no action. In the following months, news of the extermination was reported in detail by Swedish newspapers.
123:
the same year protested against the admission of a small number of Jewish refugee doctors. However, the official refusal to accept larger numbers of refugees was criticized by a minority of Swedes notably including the newspaper
305:, estimated at around 2,000. The news was reported in the Swedish press but the Ministry for Foreign Affairs was "rather slow to realise what was going on". Most Norwegian Jews were detained in the first operations but the
269:
writes that "Swedish officials, and in fact much of the newspaper-reading public, had as much or more information about many details of the 'Final Solution' than their counterparts in other neutral or Allied countries".
507:
ideology associated with Swedish Social Democracy which saw the past only as a source of moral instruction to a forward-looking national project based on social improvement. Levine, an American historian teaching at
389:
was an early ally of Nazi Germany but, as an independent state, maintained a significant degree of autonomy over its internal affairs including the treatment of its significant Jewish population. However, it was
500:
remained marginal in academia in Sweden. It was reported in 1999 that only two studies had ever been published on the theme of Sweden and the Holocaust. It has been argued that this reflected the pervasive
763:
1502:
1217:
Nordlund, Sven (2002). "'The War is Over - Now You Can Go Home!' Jewish Refugees and the Swedish Labour Market in the Shadow of the Holocaust". In Cesarani, David; Levine, Paul A. (eds.).
892:
2770:
110:
As a society, it remained stratified by class, hobbled by deference, rigid with formality and xenophobic, particularly towards Jews. Although in its anti-Semitism Sweden was firmly in
355:
Denmark had been invaded by Germany in April 1940 but had subsequently been able to retain a higher degree of internal autonomy than many other parts of German-occupied Europe until
394:
by German forces in March 1944 once it became known that the Hungarian regime had attempted to open secret negotiations with the Allies and the Germans rapidly implemented plans
2797:
217:
before the practice was finally stopped in August 1943. It was only in November 1944 that Sweden, under significant pressure from the Allies, ceased trading with Nazi Germany.
265:
by an SS officer in August 1942. He reported the information to the Ministry in the hope that it would publicly condemn the atrocities, although no action was taken. Even so,
2432:
532:
which argued that few Swedes had been aware of the Holocaust before the Swedish press published accounts of the Allied liberation of Nazi concentration camps in 1945.
758:
2822:
2467:
363:
in September 1943. After receiving approval from the Swedish government, it successfully evacuated 8,000 Danish Jews to Sweden in October and November 1943.
210:
90:
as a result of Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe. A number of small anti-Semitic political groups and parties operated in the country, including the
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1474:
290:
356:
316:
Although Sweden became increasingly conscious of the Holocaust and involved in officially-sanctioned rescue attempts in the later years of the war,
1580:
2183:
106:
in 1933 was widely known in Sweden, he stated that Swedish attitudes towards Jews were bound up with Sweden's own traditions and social history:
325:
462:
inmates in areas still under Nazi control would be collected and transported to Sweden. The initiative originated with the Norwegian diplomat
2802:
91:
1585:
1497:
539:
999:
2501:
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201:
126:
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789:
205:
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1985:
2884:
2405:
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1528:
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1297:
576:
512:
for much of his career, authored a number of influential studies on the subject and played an important role in the emergence of
1709:
488:. In its portrayal of the policy of neutrality and wartime humanitarian assistance, Levine argued that, in the post-war years:
673:
2965:
254:
2089:
1507:
1347:
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2727:
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42:
and there was widespread awareness within the country of its policy of persecution and, from 1942, mass extermination of
1923:
1226:
1207:
1185:
57:
Swedish official attitudes towards the issue began to change in the aftermath of the arrest and deportation of Jews in
2955:
2950:
1704:
1449:
1245:
1162:
1070:
1719:
1655:
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1947:
1724:
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1640:
1429:
1357:
1568:
1563:
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428:. Similar initiatives were taken by individual Swiss and Spanish diplomats in Budapest at the same time. After
2360:
359:
in August 1943. In its aftermath, German plans to detain Denmark's small Jewish population were leaked to the
2857:
2697:
1860:
1714:
1695:
1675:
1645:
1538:
481:
83:
1767:
1083:(2005). "Whither Holocaust Studies in Sweden? Some Thoughts on Levande Historia and Other Matters Swedish".
551:
in which a high number of antisemitic incidents had recently been reported. It is intended to open in 2022.
2722:
2285:
1913:
1782:
1757:
1635:
1024:Åmark, Klas (2015). "Swedish anti-Nazism and resistance against Nazi Germany during the Second World War".
403:
237:
62:
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1690:
1590:
1424:
1290:
968:
329:
257:
received news about the policy of extermination. In a chance discussion in a train, the Swedish diplomat
214:
193:
58:
1882:
69:
which served to consolidate the self-image of Sweden as a "humanitarian superpower" in post-war Europe.
2762:
2641:
2611:
2530:
2447:
2280:
1918:
1816:
1777:
1734:
1670:
1543:
1419:
310:
159:
2400:
2215:
1762:
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1352:
1339:
976:
350:
302:
262:
1255:
Wallerman, Anna (2018). "A Day in the Life: Aryanization Before the Swedish Supreme Court 1941–42".
1104:
Matz, Johan (2012). "Sweden, the United States, and Raoul Wallenberg's Mission to Hungary in 1944".
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1329:
1324:
586:
544:
395:
274:
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1548:
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1439:
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1414:
1384:
1374:
581:
463:
459:
298:
1939:
420:
2583:
2350:
1829:
1407:
1401:
1283:
371:
147:
111:
35:
2094:
180:
with the particular aim of securing its own food supplies. German forces invaded and occupied
2817:
2442:
2395:
2059:
1810:
468:
309:
did succeed in smuggling some Jewish refugees across the border into Sweden in the so-called
120:
61:. In the final years of the war, it provided official support for attempts to rescue Jews in
414:
in June 1944. It was funded and co-ordinated by the WRB rather than the Swedish government.
2780:
2717:
2300:
2084:
1975:
1953:
1848:
1843:
1824:
391:
306:
249:
225:
168:
since 1814 and was governed by a coalition of all the major parties. After the outbreak of
165:
23:
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8:
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2775:
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513:
2003:
1993:
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66:
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1134:
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451:
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407:
375:
1998:
1960:
535:
446:
It was widely seen as inevitable that the Allies would win the war by early 1945.
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2739:
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2039:
794:
131:
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2577:
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2233:
2188:
1898:
1805:
1195:
1172:
Kvist, Karin (2002). "A Study of Antisemitic Attitudes within Sweden's Wartime
1080:
1063:
Sweden, the Swastika and Stalin: The Swedish Experience in the Second World War
485:
317:
266:
221:
177:
142:
38:. Nonetheless, the Swedish government maintained important economic links with
2193:
2013:
1268:
2944:
2702:
2631:
2522:
2390:
2220:
2177:
2023:
2008:
1306:
1200:
From Indifference to Activism: Swedish Diplomacy and the Holocaust, 1938-1944
759:"Murky truth of how a neutral Sweden covered up its collaboration with Nazis"
568:
31:
1000:"Sweden allocates $ 1.1 million to start work on its first Holocaust museum"
2914:
2064:
2049:
2044:
2018:
1971:
1903:
1865:
1615:
1138:
173:
169:
103:
50:
39:
27:
2920:
2437:
2054:
1908:
790:"Sweden grapples with 'guilty conscience' over ignored Holocaust tip-off"
529:
441:
87:
1117:
1037:
2909:
2744:
2517:
2295:
1155:
Early Holocaust Memory in Sweden: Archives, Testimonies and Reflections
503:
333:
99:
2749:
2555:
425:
233:
229:
2410:
2275:
2075:
411:
313:. In this way, it is thought that up to 1,100 may have been saved.
548:
189:
185:
1275:
232:. Several hundred Swedish nationals volunteered to serve in the
172:
in 1939, it attempted to cultivate economic relations with both
2785:
378:'s Swedish diplomatic passport with which he was dispatched to
279:
181:
19:
2150:
1048:(2004). "Rescue Operations in Hungary: Myths and Realities".
969:"Sweden launches museum for Scandinavian Holocaust survivors"
893:"Is the Mystery of Raoul Wallenberg's Death Finally Solved?"
454:, used his position as a diplomat and vice-president of the
43:
927:
925:
910:
860:
850:
848:
654:
644:
642:
458:
to negotiate an agreement with the Germans under which
2668:
1127:"Dans l'œil de la tempête : la Suède et la Shoah"
821:
715:
713:
711:
629:
627:
625:
949:
809:
696:
937:
922:
845:
833:
737:
725:
639:
610:
598:
558:
200:
with Nazi Germany from 1941. During the war, Sweden
86:
was small but had grown rapidly in the aftermath of
872:
708:
684:
622:
344:
236:and some were reported to have served as guards at
1219:Bystanders to the Holocaust : a re-evaluation
757:
674:"'Cashing Out' Review: The Spoils of 'Neutrality'"
278:of Jews in German-occupied Europe as early as the
77:
204:used in the German war industries and maintained
2942:
1153:Heuman, Johannes; Rudberg, Pontus, eds. (2021).
297:The authorities in German-occupied Norway began
2443:Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare
1176:". In Cesarani, David; Levine, Paul A. (eds.).
538:, a former Swedish Prime Minister, founded the
366:
339:
137:
2803:Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law
1291:
1152:
398:. At the request of the recently established
1178:Bystanders to the Holocaust: A Re-Evaluation
540:International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance
273:Although Swedish newspapers had reported on
2502:List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust
1202:. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis.
1298:
1284:
547:would be located in Stockholm rather than
474:
294:published regular reports on the subject.
1254:
1065:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
406:. Although he was not a career diplomat,
261:was told of the extermination of Jews at
1221:. London: Frank Cass. pp. 171–198.
1216:
1180:. London: Frank Cass. pp. 199–211.
783:
781:
480:superpower'" in post-war Europe and its
370:
141:
1235:
1060:
997:
827:
755:
660:
616:
604:
577:International response to the Holocaust
2943:
1194:
1124:
1079:
1044:
998:Dolsten, Josefin (30 September 2020).
955:
943:
931:
916:
890:
839:
815:
719:
648:
282:of 1942 and Jewish newspapers such as
127:Göteborgs Handels- och Sjöfartstidning
2667:
2488:
2119:
1610:
1609:
1279:
1171:
1023:
854:
787:
778:
743:
731:
702:
690:
633:
303:the country's small Jewish population
96:Nationalsocialistiska Arbetarepartiet
2090:Reich Association of Jews in Germany
1103:
878:
866:
2895:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
788:Ledel, Johannes (9 November 2020).
756:Wiklund, Mats (17 September 2011).
250:German invasion of the Soviet Union
13:
2489:
1238:The Swedish Jews and the Holocaust
1146:
14:
2977:
1305:
471:were also among those evacuated.
112:the mainstream European tradition
92:National Socialist Workers' Party
30:and was not directly involved in
16:Neutral state during World War II
2458:Polish leaders and intellectuals
1948:Concentration Camps Inspectorate
561:
410:was selected for the mission to
345:Denmark, September–November 1943
243:
991:
961:
884:
766:from the original on 2022-05-26
749:
211:to travel through its territory
78:Jews and antisemitism in Sweden
2386:Attack on the twentieth convoy
2199:1941 pogroms in eastern Poland
1097:10.1080/17504902.2005.11087141
891:Aderet, Ofer (7 August 2016).
666:
435:
130:and the humanitarian activist
1:
592:
151:
72:
2723:Jewish war conspiracy theory
1914:Extermination through labour
1157:. Cham: Palgrave-Macmillan.
1131:Revue d'Histoire de la Shoah
1017:
301:in October 1942 to round up
255:Ministry for Foreign Affairs
238:Treblinka extermination camp
7:
2905:Righteous Among the Nations
2120:
1591:Righteous Among the Nations
1106:Journal of Cold War Studies
554:
367:Hungary, July–December 1944
340:State-backed rescue efforts
330:Righteous Among the Nations
138:Neutrality and World War II
84:Jewish population in Sweden
10:
2982:
2961:Jews and Judaism in Sweden
2642:Ukrainian Auxiliary Police
2612:Lithuanian Security Police
2531:Reich Security Main Office
1498:Evidence and documentation
439:
348:
311:Carl Fredriksens Transport
228:which overlapped with the
160:Sweden during World War II
157:
2858:Books and other resources
2845:
2761:
2690:
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2569:
2510:
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2231:
2169:
2141:
2132:
2128:
2115:
2073:
2032:
1984:
1970:
1932:
1891:
1791:
1748:
1626:
1622:
1605:
1521:
1490:
1390:Bulgarian-occupied Greece
1317:
1313:
1269:10.1017/S0738248018000184
1026:Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte
977:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
351:Rescue of the Danish Jews
332:by the Israeli institute
263:Belzec extermination camp
146:Sweden shown on a map of
2966:Germany–Sweden relations
2956:The Holocaust by country
2951:The Holocaust and Sweden
2448:People with disabilities
2381:Aid and Rescue Committee
1236:Rudberg, Pontus (2019).
587:Turkey and the Holocaust
545:Swedish Holocaust Museum
328:have been recognised as
275:Nazi concentration camps
2589:Order Police battalions
1050:East European Quarterly
582:Spain and the Holocaust
475:Postwar representations
464:Niels Christian Ditleff
396:to exterminate its Jews
63:German-occupied Denmark
2438:Soviet urban residents
1529:International response
1503:Contemporary knowledge
1257:Law and History Review
1139:10.3917/rhsho.203.0277
1061:Gilmour, John (2010).
528:, 2014) by the author
495:
383:
299:a series of operations
215:German-occupied Norway
155:
148:German-occupied Europe
116:
59:German-occupied Norway
36:German-occupied Europe
2885:Memorials and museums
2823:Reparations Agreement
2818:Holocaust restitution
2396:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
1919:Human experimentation
1758:Auschwitz II-Birkenau
1240:. London: Routledge.
543:was decided that the
490:
482:prominent involvement
469:Theresienstadt Ghetto
374:
145:
121:University of Uppsala
108:
2085:Jewish Ghetto Police
1954:Politische Abteilung
1849:Risiera di San Sabba
1710:Natzweiler-Struthof
1125:Zander, Ulf (2015).
307:Norwegian resistance
226:Nazi racial theories
188:in April 1940 while
2863:Days of remembrance
2776:Holocaust survivors
2771:Depopulated shtetls
2622:Rollkommando Hamann
2468:Jehovah's Witnesses
2286:Kamianets-Podilskyi
1348:Bohemia and Moravia
1046:Braham, Randolph L.
869:, pp. 110–114.
762:. The Independent.
678:Wall Street Journal
514:Holocaust education
430:encircling the city
2846:History and memory
2750:Forced euthanasia
2698:Nazi racial policy
2401:Danish underground
2248:Operation Reinhard
2243:Wannsee Conference
979:. 8 September 2018
973:The Jerusalem Post
522:Not Wanting To See
510:Uppsala University
460:concentration camp
384:
357:a political crisis
156:
2938:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2781:Sh'erit ha-Pletah
2728:Jewish emigration
2718:Hitler's prophecy
2713:Haavara Agreement
2659:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2647:Ypatingasis būrys
2544:Sicherheitsdienst
2480:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2419:
2418:
2339:Bielski partisans
2111:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2102:
1942:Totenkopfverbände
1601:
1600:
1085:Holocaust Studies
1002:. Times of Israel
705:, pp. 300–1.
663:, pp. 18–19.
526:Att inte vilja se
498:Holocaust studies
456:Swedish Red Cross
421:chargé d'affaires
400:War Refugee Board
361:Danish resistance
202:exported iron ore
2973:
2830:Holocaust denial
2808:Nuremberg trials
2798:Postwar violence
2753:
2688:
2687:
2665:
2664:
2627:Special Brigades
2617:Nederlandsche SS
2584:Police Regiments
2508:
2507:
2486:
2485:
2346:Ghetto uprisings
2334:Jewish partisans
2281:Harvest Festival
2253:Holocaust trains
2139:
2138:
2130:
2129:
2117:
2116:
1982:
1981:
1878:
1856:
1838:
1819:
1801:
1624:
1623:
1607:
1606:
1315:
1314:
1300:
1293:
1286:
1277:
1276:
1272:
1251:
1232:
1213:
1191:
1168:
1142:
1133:(203): 277–290.
1121:
1100:
1076:
1057:
1041:
1012:
1011:
1009:
1007:
995:
989:
988:
986:
984:
965:
959:
953:
947:
941:
935:
929:
920:
919:, p. 183-4.
914:
908:
907:
905:
903:
888:
882:
876:
870:
864:
858:
852:
843:
837:
831:
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819:
813:
807:
806:
804:
802:
785:
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775:
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771:
761:
753:
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735:
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723:
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664:
658:
652:
646:
637:
631:
620:
614:
608:
602:
571:
566:
565:
564:
452:Count of Wisborg
448:Folke Bernadotte
408:Raoul Wallenberg
376:Raoul Wallenberg
164:Sweden had been
153:
119:Students at the
49:Before the war,
2981:
2980:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2971:
2970:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2926:
2841:
2757:
2751:
2740:Madagascar Plan
2733:Kindertransport
2682:
2681:
2651:
2593:
2565:
2550:Ordnungspolizei
2506:
2493:
2472:
2415:
2367:
2320:
2291:Maly Trostenets
2262:Mass executions
2257:
2227:
2165:
2124:
2099:
2069:
2028:
1966:
1928:
1887:
1876:
1854:
1836:
1817:
1799:
1787:
1744:
1618:
1597:
1517:
1508:Hidden children
1486:
1344:Czechoslovakia
1309:
1304:
1248:
1229:
1210:
1196:Levine, Paul A.
1188:
1174:Utlänningsbyrån
1165:
1149:
1147:Further reading
1081:Levine, Paul A.
1073:
1020:
1015:
1005:
1003:
996:
992:
982:
980:
967:
966:
962:
954:
950:
942:
938:
930:
923:
915:
911:
901:
899:
889:
885:
881:, pp. 138.
877:
873:
865:
861:
853:
846:
838:
834:
826:
822:
814:
810:
800:
798:
795:Times of Israel
786:
779:
769:
767:
754:
750:
742:
738:
730:
726:
718:
709:
701:
697:
689:
685:
672:
671:
667:
659:
655:
647:
640:
632:
623:
615:
611:
603:
599:
595:
567:
562:
560:
557:
477:
444:
438:
369:
353:
347:
342:
291:Judisk Tidskrif
259:Göran von Otter
246:
162:
140:
132:Natanael Beskow
80:
75:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2979:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2936:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2924:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2835:trivialization
2827:
2826:
2825:
2815:
2813:Eichmann trial
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2773:
2767:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2708:Nuremberg Laws
2705:
2700:
2694:
2692:
2691:Early elements
2684:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2676:
2673:
2672:Early elements
2669:
2661:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2607:Arajs Kommando
2603:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2578:Einsatzgruppen
2573:
2571:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2539:
2528:
2520:
2514:
2512:
2505:
2504:
2498:
2495:
2494:
2491:Responsibility
2482:
2481:
2478:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2429:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2377:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2330:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2270:Einsatzgruppen
2265:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2239:
2237:
2234:Final Solution
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2147:
2145:
2136:
2126:
2125:
2113:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2095:Ústredňa Židov
2092:
2087:
2081:
2079:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2060:Theresienstadt
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1979:
1968:
1967:
1965:
1964:
1957:
1950:
1945:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1899:Einsatzgruppen
1895:
1893:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1885:
1880:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1754:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1705:Mittelbau-Dora
1702:
1693:
1688:
1686:Kraków-Płaszów
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1632:
1630:
1620:
1619:
1603:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1576:Rescue of Jews
1573:
1572:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1525:
1523:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1494:
1492:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1477:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1399:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1321:
1319:
1311:
1310:
1303:
1302:
1295:
1288:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1263:(3): 593–617.
1252:
1246:
1233:
1228:978-0714682433
1227:
1214:
1209:978-9155437992
1208:
1192:
1187:978-0714682433
1186:
1169:
1163:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1143:
1122:
1101:
1077:
1071:
1058:
1042:
1032:(2): 300–312.
1019:
1016:
1014:
1013:
990:
960:
958:, p. 290.
948:
936:
921:
909:
883:
871:
859:
857:, p. 311.
844:
832:
830:, p. 192.
820:
818:, p. 287.
808:
777:
748:
746:, p. 301.
736:
734:, p. 312.
724:
707:
695:
693:, p. 300.
683:
665:
653:
651:, p. 285.
638:
636:, p. 310.
621:
609:
596:
594:
591:
590:
589:
584:
579:
573:
572:
556:
553:
486:United Nations
476:
473:
440:Main article:
437:
434:
368:
365:
349:Main article:
346:
343:
341:
338:
318:Paul A. Levine
285:Judisk Krönika
267:Paul A. Levine
245:
242:
222:anti-communism
206:a trade policy
178:United Kingdom
158:Main article:
139:
136:
79:
76:
74:
71:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2978:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2946:
2922:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2828:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2778:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2760:
2754:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2703:Nazi eugenics
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2677:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2632:Topf and Sons
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2599:Collaborators
2596:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2537:Referat IV B4
2535:
2534:
2533: (RSHA)
2532:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2524:Schutzstaffel
2521:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2511:Organizations
2509:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2453:Romani people
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2428:
2426:
2422:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2406:Working Group
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2391:Kastner train
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2370:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2344:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2230:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2217:
2214:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2178:Kristallnacht
2175:
2174:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1961:Sanitätswesen
1958:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1925:
1924:Death marches
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1839:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1820:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1750:Extermination
1747:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1725:Sachsenhausen
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1666:Herzogenbusch
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1641:Bergen-Belsen
1639:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1628:Concentration
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1564:United States
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1404:and colonies
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1307:The Holocaust
1301:
1296:
1294:
1289:
1287:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1247:9780367348748
1243:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1166:
1164:9783030555313
1160:
1156:
1151:
1150:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1112:(3): 97–148.
1111:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1072:9780748627462
1068:
1064:
1059:
1056:(2): 173–203.
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1022:
1021:
1001:
994:
978:
974:
970:
964:
957:
952:
946:, p. 86.
945:
940:
934:, p. 84.
933:
928:
926:
918:
913:
898:
894:
887:
880:
875:
868:
863:
856:
851:
849:
842:, p. 82.
841:
836:
829:
824:
817:
812:
797:
796:
791:
784:
782:
765:
760:
752:
745:
740:
733:
728:
722:, p. 81.
721:
716:
714:
712:
704:
699:
692:
687:
679:
675:
669:
662:
657:
650:
645:
643:
635:
630:
628:
626:
619:, p. 20.
618:
613:
607:, p. 18.
606:
601:
597:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
574:
570:
569:Sweden portal
559:
552:
550:
546:
541:
537:
536:Göran Persson
533:
531:
527:
523:
517:
515:
511:
506:
505:
499:
494:
489:
487:
483:
472:
470:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
443:
433:
431:
427:
423:
422:
415:
413:
409:
405:
404:Eastern Front
401:
397:
393:
388:
381:
377:
373:
364:
362:
358:
352:
337:
335:
331:
327:
322:
319:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
295:
293:
292:
287:
286:
281:
276:
271:
268:
264:
260:
256:
251:
244:The Holocaust
241:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
218:
216:
212:
207:
203:
199:
197:
192:entered into
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
166:neutral state
161:
149:
144:
135:
133:
129:
128:
122:
115:
113:
107:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
70:
68:
64:
60:
55:
52:
47:
45:
41:
37:
33:
32:the Holocaust
29:
25:
24:neutral state
21:
2915:Yizkor books
2576:
2523:
2268:
2216:in Lithuania
2176:
2074:
1959:
1952:
1941:
1875:
1853:
1834:
1815:
1798:
1581:by Catholics
1553:
1450:Soviet Union
1318:By territory
1260:
1256:
1237:
1218:
1199:
1177:
1173:
1154:
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1091:(1): 75–98.
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1004:. Retrieved
993:
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828:Gilmour 2010
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424:in Budapest
419:
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382:in July 1944
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253:Sweden, the
247:
219:
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174:Nazi Germany
170:World War II
163:
125:
117:
109:
95:
81:
56:
51:antisemitism
48:
40:Nazi Germany
28:World War II
18:
2921:Never again
2752:(Action T4)
2678:Remembrance
2463:Homosexuals
2433:Soviet POWs
2361:Częstochowa
1909:Gas chamber
1720:Ravensbrück
1661:Gross-Rosen
1656:Flossenbürg
1539:Philippines
1471:Yugoslavia
1430:Netherlands
1358:Sudetenland
983:27 February
956:Zander 2015
944:Levine 2005
932:Levine 2005
917:Braham 2004
840:Levine 2005
816:Zander 2015
801:27 February
720:Levine 2005
649:Zander 2015
530:Jan Guillou
516:in Sweden.
442:White Buses
436:White Buses
224:as well as
88:World War I
2945:Categories
2910:Yad Vashem
2890:Uniqueness
2745:Nisko Plan
2518:Nazi Party
2326:Resistance
2296:Ninth Fort
2161:Vel' d'Hiv
1933:Nazi units
1871:Westerbork
1861:Amersfoort
1715:Neuengamme
1696:Mauthausen
1676:Kaiserwald
1646:Buchenwald
1425:Luxembourg
902:20 January
855:Åmark 2015
770:22 January
744:Åmark 2015
732:Åmark 2015
703:Åmark 2015
691:Åmark 2015
634:Åmark 2015
593:References
504:Folkhemmet
334:Yad Vashem
324:In total,
100:Nazi Party
73:Background
2868:Education
2763:Aftermath
2675:Aftermath
2637:Trawnikis
2561:Wehrmacht
2556:Waffen-SS
2356:Białystok
2184:Bucharest
2156:Marseille
2033:Elsewhere
1994:Białystok
1806:Breendonk
1783:Treblinka
1636:Auschwitz
1420:Lithuania
1018:Citations
879:Matz 2012
867:Matz 2012
426:Per Anger
326:10 Swedes
234:Waffen-SS
230:Nordicism
2853:Academia
2306:Piaśnica
2276:Babi Yar
2204:Jedwabne
2143:Roundups
2076:Judenrat
2040:Budapest
1811:Mechelen
1773:Majdanek
1730:Stutthof
1691:Majdanek
1586:by Poles
1544:Portugal
1522:Response
1513:Timeline
1491:Overview
1353:Slovakia
1340:Bulgaria
1198:(1996).
1118:26924084
1038:24713121
764:Archived
555:See also
412:Budapest
198:alliance
196:de facto
176:and the
2880:Lessons
2316:Rumbula
2189:Dorohoi
2170:Pogroms
2122:Victims
1972:Ghettos
1904:Gas van
1892:Methods
1866:Schoorl
1844:Bolzano
1792:Transit
1778:Sobibor
1768:Chełmno
1735:Vaivara
1671:Hinzert
1616:ghettos
1569:Vatican
1475:Croatia
1465:Ukraine
1455:Belarus
1445:Romania
1397:Hungary
1380:Germany
1370:Estonia
1365:Denmark
1335:Belgium
1330:Austria
1325:Albania
1006:6 March
897:Haaretz
484:in the
392:invaded
387:Hungary
380:Hungary
190:Finland
186:Denmark
104:Germany
67:Hungary
26:during
2786:Bricha
2552:(Orpo)
2425:Others
2411:Żegota
2373:Rescue
2351:Warsaw
2311:Ponary
2221:Kaunas
2024:Warsaw
2009:Lublin
1999:Kraków
1986:Poland
1830:Drancy
1763:Belzec
1740:Warsaw
1651:Dachau
1559:Turkey
1554:Sweden
1480:Serbia
1460:Russia
1440:Poland
1435:Norway
1415:Latvia
1385:Greece
1375:France
1244:
1225:
1206:
1184:
1161:
1116:
1069:
1036:
280:autumn
182:Norway
22:was a
20:Sweden
2900:Humor
2873:Films
2570:Units
2301:Odesa
2151:Izieu
2065:Vilna
2050:Minsk
2045:Kovno
2019:Radom
1883:Sereď
1700:Gusen
1681:Kauen
1612:Camps
1549:Spain
1534:Japan
1408:Libya
1402:Italy
1114:JSTOR
1034:JSTOR
549:Malmö
213:from
2791:List
2546:(SD)
2526:(SS)
2209:Lviv
2194:Iași
2134:Jews
2055:Riga
2014:Lwów
2004:Łódź
1976:list
1825:Gurs
1698:and
1614:and
1242:ISBN
1223:ISBN
1204:ISBN
1182:ISBN
1159:ISBN
1067:ISBN
1008:2021
985:2021
904:2024
803:2021
772:2021
288:and
248:The
184:and
154:1942
82:The
65:and
44:Jews
1940:SS-
1265:doi
1135:doi
1093:doi
102:in
34:in
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1877:sk
1855:nl
1837:it
1818:fr
1800:be
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