White Australia policy

3154:

race-based immigration policy would run "contrary to the general conceptions of equality which have ever been the guiding principle of British rule throughout the Empire". The Barton government therefore conceived of the "Education test", later called the "Dictation Test", which would allow the government, at the discretion of Customs Officers, to block unwanted migrants by forcing them to sit a test in "any European language". At the time, Anglo-Japanese relations were improving, and in 1902 Britain and Japan were to sign a defensive alliance directed implicitly against Russia. The White Australia policy led to vigorous protests from the Japanese government, and led to complaints from London that Australia was gratuitously straining relations with Japan, which Britain viewed as a prospective ally against Russia.

3507: 4443:, Asian countries became an increasingly important source of immigration over the decade from 1996 to 2006, with the proportion of migrants from Southern and Central Asian countries doubling from 7% to 14%. The proportion of immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa also increased. By 2005–06, China and India were the third and fourth largest sources of all migration (after New Zealand and the United Kingdom). In 2005–06, there were 180,000 permanent additions of migrants to Australia (72% more than the number in 1996–97). This figure included around 17,000 through the humanitarian programme, of whom 3585:

of European immigrants from countries that were previously considered undesirable weakened the case for Australia as a primarily "British" country and led to demands for the end of the White Australia policy. Given that the purpose of the White Australia policy was to preserve Australia as a British country, in an ironic twist, some of the strongest critics of the White Australia policy in the 1950s were liberal British professors serving at Australian universities. In 1959, the Immigration Reform Group was founded at Melbourne University to champion for the abolition of the policy.

2854:, which made racially-based selection criteria unlawful. In the decades since, Australia has maintained large-scale multi-ethnic immigration. As of 2018, Australia's migration program allows people from any country to apply to immigrate to Australia, regardless of their nationality, ethnicity, culture, religion, or language, provided that they meet the criteria set out in law. Prior to 2011, the United Kingdom was the largest source country for immigration to Australia but, since then, China and India have provided the highest number of permanent migrants. The 2935: 2189: 3218:, with arguments ranging from economic protection to outright racism. The Labor Party wanted to protect "white" jobs and pushed for more explicit restrictions. A few politicians spoke of the need to avoid hysterical treatment of the question. Member of Parliament Bruce Smith said he had "no desire to see low-class Indians, Chinamen or Japanese...swarming into this country... But there is obligation...not (to) unnecessarily offend the educated classes of those nations" 3594: 8338: 3307: 9511: 2781:, reinforced demands to eliminate or minimize low-wage immigration from Asia and the Pacific Islands. From the 1850s colonial governments imposed restrictions on Chinese arrivals, including poll taxes and tonnage restrictions. The colonial authorities levied a special tax on Chinese immigrants which other immigrants did not have to pay. Towards the end of the 19th century, labour unions pushed to stop Chinese immigrants from working in the furniture and 2998: 124: 4631: 4038: 4370: 4493:

duty) to protect herself" from Asian immigration. Views such as those expressed by Roberts have been in the minority. In 2009, the Australian historian Erin Ihde described the White Australia policy as "discredited" both within the historians' community and with the general public. Ihde wrote that the White Australia policy remains a difficult subject within the Australian popular memory of the past as it was the fear of the so-called "

25: 164: 2878: 3264:") working mostly on plantations in Queensland were deported, and entry into Australia by Pacific Islanders was prohibited after 1904. Those exempted from repatriation, along with a number of others who escaped deportation, remained in Australia to form the basis of what is today Australia's largest non-indigenous black ethnic group. Today, the descendants of those who remained are officially referred to as 11524: 8367: 4497:" in the form of Asian immigration and the possibility of Asian nations such as China and Japan posing a military threat to Australia that played a major role in the formation of the Australian federation in 1901. Ihde argued the White Australia policy was not an aberration in Australian history, nor was it marginal, making it problematic to integrate into a positive view of Australian history. 3702: 3298:. The Australian government granted equal rights to Māori only reluctantly. In 1905, the New Zealand government made a formal complaint about the exclusion of two Māori shearers, after which the Australian government changed its customs regulations to allow Māori to freely enter the country. Other Pacific Islanders were still subject to the White Australia Policy. 3158:

option of the British, the Education Test was passed. There was also opposition from Queensland and its sugar industry to the proposals of the Pacific Islanders Bill to exclude "Kanaka" labourers, however Barton argued that the practice was "veiled slavery" that could lead to a "negro problem" similar to that in the United States, and the bill was passed.

3142:

Australian politics with both the trade unions and the Labour Party being the most militant opponents of Asian immigration well into the 1960s. Many Australians in the early 20th century tended to define being white as being the same as Australian with a majority of Australian states passing laws banning marriage and/or sex between whites and

4468:, Blainey criticised multiculturalism for tending to "emphasise the rights of ethnic minorities at the expense of the majority of Australians" and also for tending to be "anti-British", even though "people from the United Kingdom and Ireland form the dominant class of pre-war immigrants and the largest single group of post-war immigrants." 2994:

the genesis of the White Australia Policy. The "Australian compact", based around centralised industrial arbitration, a degree of government assistance particularly for primary industries, and White Australia, was to continue for many years before gradually dissolving in the second half of the 20th century.

4529:

Hanson's remarks generated wide interest in the media both nationally and internationally, but she herself did not retain her seat in Parliament at the 1998 election or subsequent 2001 and 2004 federal elections. Hanson also failed to win election in the 2003 and 2011 New South Wales state elections.

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of migrants to Australia from continental Europe, who were expected to become mainstream Australians. In 1947, Australian immigration law, which had until had been based on encouraging British immigration, was amended to take in more European immigration. The way that Australia took in a large number

3530:

During the war, many non-white refugees, Chinese but also including Malays, Indonesians and Filipinos, arrived in Australia, but Calwell controversially sought to have them all deported. Between 1945 and 1952, an Australian brigade served as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan.

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The policy of White Australia is now, perhaps, the most outstanding political characteristic of this country, and it has been accepted not only by those closely associated with it, but also by those who watched and studied "this interesting experiment" from afar. Only those who favor the exploitation

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quickly moved to restrict immigration to maintain Australia's "British character", and the Pacific Island Labourers Bill and the Immigration Restriction Bill were passed shortly before parliament rose for its first Christmas recess. The colonial secretary in Britain had, however, made it clear that a

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and other labour organisations at the time, upon whose support the Labor Party was founded. The Australian historian James Jupp wrote that it was not true that the White Australia policy was exclusively a right-wing cause as the strongest support for the White Australia policy was on the left-side of

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stated that his government aimed to establish a multi-racial society in Australia and committed to abolishing racial discrimination. However he stated that there was still a need to restrict non-white immigration. He had earlier stated that the White Australia policy was not morally justifiable, but

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was politically active and denounced anti-Chinese legislation as "un-Christian". The popular press mocked the Cardinal's position and the small European population of Australia generally supported the legislation and remained fearful of being overwhelmed by an influx of non-British migrants from the

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For the millions of Australians who have no other nation to fall back upon, multiculturalism is almost an insult. It is divisive. It threatens social cohesion. It could, in the long-term, also endanger Australia's military security because it sets up enclaves which in a crisis could appeal to their

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According to Blainey, such a policy, with its "emphasis on what is different and on the rights of the new minority rather than the old majority," was unnecessarily creating division and threatened national cohesion. He argued that "the evidence is clear that many multicultural societies have failed

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Australia gained a reputation as "the working man's paradise". Some employers hired Chinese labourers, who were cheaper and more hard working. This produced a reaction which led eventually to all the colonies restricting Chinese immigration by 1888 and subsequently other Asian immigration. This was

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praised the White Australia policy as being necessary to "protect Australia as an English-speaking nation". Roberts wrote the White Australia policy was the "right" immigration policy to pursue as he accused Asian immigrants of spreading infectious diseases and stated "Australia had the right (and

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During the war, talk arose about the possibility of abolishing the policy. Hostility to this idea was one reason Australia never signed a treaty with China as it was feared the Chinese government would request the abolition of the White Australian policy as an ally. A spokesman for the Labor Party

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of the American delegation: "It may be all right. But sooner than agree to it I would walk into the Seine-or the Folies Bergeres-with my clothes off". Hughes did offer the compromise that he would support the Racial Equality Clause provided that it did not affect immigration, an offer the Japanese

3157:

For the Labor Party this was a compromise of principles, so the main question for the debate on the Immigration Restriction Act just how openly racist to be, with the Labor Party preferring to openly bar "aboriginal natives of Asia, Africa, or the islands thereof". However in the end the preferred

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and Queensland, the area would have to be abandoned. Despite these objections to restricting immigration, between 1875 and 1888 all Australian colonies enacted legislation which excluded all further Chinese immigration. Asian immigrants already residing in the Australian colonies were not expelled

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announced applications for migration would be accepted from well-qualified people "on the basis of their suitability as settlers, their ability to integrate readily and their possession of qualifications positively useful to Australia". At the same time, Holt's government decided to allow foreign

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language. The tests were given in such a way as to make them impossible to pass. If a person seemed likely to pass in English then a test in another language could be given. Attlee Hunt, the first administrator of the Immigration Restriction Act expressed it clearly in a 1903 memo to all Customs

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transformed the Australian colonies economically, politically and demographically. Over the next 20 years, 40,000 Chinese men but very few women, nearly all from the province of Guangdong (then known as Canton) but divided by language and dialect nevertheless, immigrated to the goldfields seeking

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I am proud of my white skin, just as a Chinese is proud of his yellow skin, a Japanese of his brown skin, and the Indians of their various hues from black to coffee-coloured. Anybody who is not proud of his race is not a man at all. And any man who tries to stigmatise the Australian community as

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Menzies: "I don't want to see reproduced in Australia the kind of problem they have in South Africa or in America or increasingly in Great Britain. I think it's been a very good policy and it's been of great value to us and most of the criticism of it that I've ever heard doesn't come from these

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Officers: "It is not desirable that persons should be allowed to past the test, and before putting it to anyone the Officer should be satisfied that he will fail. If he is considered likely to pass the test if put in English, it should be applied in some other language of which he is ignorant."

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peoples. Pre-Federation, the Australian colonies passed many anti-Chinese immigration laws mainly using Poll Taxes, with Federation in 1901 came discrimination based on the Dictation Test, which effectively gave power to immigration officials to racially discriminate without mentioning race. The

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immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 34% of the population, a higher proportion than in any other nation with a population of over 10 million. 162,417 permanent immigrants were admitted to Australia in 2017–18. Most immigrants are skilled, but the immigration quota includes

4524:

I and most Australians want our immigration policy radically reviewed and that of multiculturalism abolished. I believe we are in danger of being swamped by Asians. Between 1984 and 1995, 40 per cent of all migrants coming into this country were of Asian origin. They have their own culture and

4454:

The Australian historian John Fitzgerald wrote that the White Australia policy, with its definition that to be Australian was to be white, had a powerful impact on forging the identity of the Chinese-Australian community as a marginalised community. Fitzgerald noted that even in the early 21st

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and its relatively small population compared to other nations led to policies summarised by the slogan, "populate or perish." According to author Lachlan Strahan, this was an ethnocentric slogan that in effect was an admonition to fill Australia with Europeans or else risk having it overrun by

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Early drafts of the act explicitly banned non-Europeans from migrating to Australia but objections from the British government, which feared that such a measure would offend British subjects in India and Britain's allies in Japan, caused the Barton government to remove this wording. Instead, a

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The story of Australia since the Second World War – and particularly since the final relegation of the White Australia Policy – has been one of ever-increasing ethnic and cultural diversity. Successive governments have sustained a large program of multi-ethnic immigration from all continents.

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The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 imposed a dictation test, in any European language, for any non-European migrant to Australia. The immigration officer (Customs until 1949) could choose any language, which effectively meant that the officer had the power to restrict the immigration of any

4417:

Discrimination on the basis of race or ethnicity was legally permitted until 1975. Australia's new official policy on racial diversity is: "to build on our success as a culturally diverse, accepting and open society, united through a shared future". The White Australia policy continues to be

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stating, "It would ruin the Party if we altered the immigration policy ... it was only cranks, long hairs, academics and do-gooders who wanted the change." However, Dunstan persisted in his efforts, and in 1965, the White Australia Policy was removed from the Labor platform at their national

3853:

Australia's contemporary immigration programme has two components: a programme for skilled and family migrants and a humanitarian programme for refugees and asylum seekers. By 2010, the post-war immigration programme had received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. The

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After the removal of official discrimination, preference was still given to Asian migrants of European or racially mixed appearance. A report on the Filipino community of Sydney in 1966 observed that its members – numbering approximately 100 – were all "white" looking, or in Filipino terms,

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proposed an Australian Citizenship Test intended "to get that balance between diversity and integration correct in future, particularly as we now draw people from so many different countries and so many different cultures". The draft proposal contained a pamphlet introducing

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o race on... this earth has been treated in a more shameful manner than have the Chinese.... They were forced at the point of a bayonet to admit Englishmen... into China. Now if we compel them to admit our people... why in the name of justice should we refuse to admit them

3073:

We quite sympathize with the determination...of these colonies...that there should not be an influx of people alien in civilisation, alien in religion, alien in customs, whose influx, moreover, would seriously interfere with the legitimate rights of the existing labouring

3206:"dictation test" was introduced as a device for excluding unwanted immigrants. Immigration officials were given the power to exclude any person who failed to pass a 50-word dictation test. At first this was to be in any European language, but was later changed to include 4534:, continued her call for a freeze on immigration, arguing that African migrants carried disease into Australia. Hanson returned to politics in 2014 and ran in the Queensland election. She won a Queensland senate seat in the 2016 election, and retained it again in 2022. 7377: 3369:

The White Australia is yours. You may do with it what you please, but at any rate, the soldiers have achieved the victory and my colleagues and I have brought that great principle back to you from the conference, as safe as it was on the day when it was first

3200:

It is not the bad qualities, but the good qualities of these alien races that make them so dangerous to us. It is their inexhaustible energy, their power of applying themselves to new tasks, their endurance and low standard of living that make them such

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I do believe that if it is – in the eyes of some in the community – that it's too great, it would be in our immediate-term interest and supporting of social cohesion if it were slowed down a little, so the capacity of the community to absorb it was

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industries. Some laws were passed regarding the labelling of Chinese made furniture in Victoria and Western Australia but not in New South Wales. Chinese people dominated market gardening until their numbers declined as departures were not replaced.

2811:, which was used to bar non-white immigrants from entry. Subsequent acts further strengthened the policy. These policies effectively gave British migrants preference over all others through the first half of the 20th century. During World War II, 3038:

movement began a series of protests against foreign labour. Their arguments were that Asians and Chinese took jobs away from white men, worked for "substandard" wages, lowered working conditions, were harder workers and refused unionisation.

3411:) reinforced the message of the White Australia Policy by saying: "This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace in order to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race." 1143: 4472:

and that the human cost of the failure has been high" and warned that "we should think very carefully about the perils of converting Australia into a giant multicultural laboratory for the assumed benefit of the peoples of the world."

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was a prominent topic of discussion in the lead up to the establishment of the Australian Federation. At the third session of the Australasian Federation Convention of 1898, Western Australian premier and future federal cabinet member

4588:. Migrants were to be required to correctly answer at least 12 out of 20 questions on such topics in a citizenship quiz. Migrants would also be required to demonstrate an adequate level of understanding of the English language. The 4939: 3191:. Deakin supported Barton's position over that of the Labor Party in drafting the bill (the ALP wanted more direct methods of exclusion than the dictation test) and redacted the more vicious racism proposed for the text in his 4500:

Despite the overall success and generally bipartisan support for Australia's multi-ethnic immigration programme, there remain voices of opposition to immigration within the Australian electorate. At its peak, Pauline Hanson's

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of the Bill. In seeking to justify the policy, Deakin said he believed that the Japanese and Chinese might be a threat to the newly formed federation and it was this belief that led to legislation to ensure they would be kept

7369: 2807:, who eventually became Australia's second prime minister. The passage of this bill marked the commencement of the White Australia Policy as Australian federal government policy. The key feature of this legislation was the 3692:

In 1963, a paper, "Immigration: Control or Colour Bar?", was published by a group of students and academics at Melbourne University. It proposed eliminating the White Australia policy and was influential towards this end.

3334:. Japanese policy reflected their desire to remove or to ease the immigration restrictions against Japanese (especially in the United States and Canada), which Japan regarded as a humiliation and affront to its prestige. 4618:

Surveys from 2018 and 2023 have found that over 15% polled have shown support for discrimination when it comes to immigration intake. Support for discrimination was higher on basis of religion then race or ethnicity.

3099:"White Australia Policy" – a vehement effort to maintain a high Western standard of economy, society and culture (necessitating at that stage, however it might be camouflaged, the rigid exclusion of Oriental peoples). 3871:, descent. By not allowing immigration by people who had other ethnic origins, it effectively limited the immigration of practitioners of non-Christian faiths. Consequently, the White Australia Policy ensured that 5100: 3798:

racist because they want to preserve this country for the white race is doing our nation great harm... I reject, in conscience, the idea that Australia should or ever can become a multi-racial society and survive.

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Gold brought great wealth but also new social tensions. Multi-ethnic migrants came to Victoria and New South Wales in large numbers for the first time. Competition on the goldfields, particularly resentment among

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It is of no use to shut our eyes to the fact that there is a great feeling all over Australia against the introduction of coloured persons. It goes without saying that we do not like to talk about it, but it is

3454:. Australia received thousands of refugees from territories falling to advancing Japanese forces – notably thousands of Chinese men and women as well as many Chinese seamen. There were also Dutch who fled the 3844:

and many more others had arrived in Australia through either SHP or refugee programmes. The last selective immigration policy, offering relocation assistance to British nationals, was finally removed in 1982.

3572:" to settle in Australia. In the meantime, Holt continued Calwell's policy of encouraging mass immigration from Europe, and Australia admitted large numbers of immigrants from mostly Italy, Poland, Greece and 7005: 6755: 4537:

Topics related to racism and immigration in Australia are still regularly connected by the media to the White Australia policy. Some examples of issues and events where this connection has been made include:

3724:

had announced a significant liberalisation of immigration laws for non-whites. These included reducing the waiting time for non-whites to obtain citizenship from fifteen years to five years and allowed for

3248:

individual. Further discriminatory legislation was the Postal and Telegraph Services Act 1901 (1 Edward VII 12 1901), which required any ship carrying mail to and from Australia to only have a white crew.

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reinforced the policy, saying "This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace in order to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race."

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Ishii, Yuka. (2021) "Transformation of the 'Mutual' Recognition between Australia and Asia in the Era of the White Australia Policy Geopolitics, Human Exchange, and Images in the Asia-Pacific Region."

6915: 3180:, the prime minister, argued in support of the bill with the following statement: "The doctrine of the equality of man was never intended to apply to the equality of the Englishman and the Chinaman." 3894: 3360:

that he would leave the conference if the clause was adopted. Hughes wrote in 1919: "No Govt. could live for a day in Australia if it tempered with a White Australia". Hughes wrote a note to Colonel

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The British government in London was not pleased with legislation that discriminated against certain subjects of its empire, but decided not to disallow the laws that were passed. Colonial Secretary

5327: 2496: 3176:(1 Edward VII 17 1901) to "place certain restrictions on immigration and... for the removal... of prohibited immigrants". The act drew on similar legislation in the South African colony of Natal. 9785: 7806:– A shipboard diary kept by able seaman Newton Barton on one of his voyages to recruit South Sea Islanders for the Queensland cane fields. Digitised and held by the State Library of Queensland. 6858: 6153: 6880: 4603:

to reintroduce the White Australia Policy, especially with regard to excluding Muslims. He was criticised by politicians from the left and the right, in particular for his choice of words ("

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policy also affected immigrants from Germany, Italy, and other European countries, especially in wartime. Governments progressively dismantled such policies between 1949 and 1973, when the

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modified the White Australia policy in an effort to reduce the strong perception of Australia's anti-Asian racism. After a review of immigration policy in March 1966, Immigration Minister

1104: 4776: 3062:, and they did not become law. Instead, the Natal Act of 1897 was introduced, restricting "undesirable persons" who could not fill in a set form rather than by naming any specific race. 5303: 4923: 4462:

achieved mainstream recognition for the anti-multiculturalist cause when he wrote that multiculturalism threatened to transform Australia into a "cluster of tribes". In his 1984 book

3729:. Non-white immigrants would be admitted on the basis that they were "well-qualified", rather than "highly qualified and distinguished" as had been the case since 1956. According to 4484:

Blainey remained a persistent critic of multiculturalism into the 1990s, denouncing multiculturalism as "morally, intellectually and economically ... a sham". The British historian

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served in the frontline of the defence of Australia, bringing Australia's racially discriminatory immigration and political rights policies into focus and wartime service gave many

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Hughes vehemently opposed Japan's racial equality proposition. Hughes recognised that such a clause would be a threat to White Australia and made it clear to British prime minister

5660: 4746:. Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry. 2858:

describes the White Australia Policy as openly racist, stating that it "existed because many white Australians feared that non-white immigrants would threaten Australian society".

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Agreements were made to further increase these restrictions in 1895 following an inter-colonial premiers' conference where all colonies agreed to extend entry restrictions to all

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century, many Chinese-Australians who had been born and grew up in Australia automatically referred to white Australians as "the Australians" and to themselves as "the Chinese".

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Affeldt, Stefanie (2010) "A Paroxysm of Whiteness. 'White' Labour, 'White' Nation and 'White' Sugar in Australia" in Hund, Wulf D.; Krikler, Jeremy; and Roediger, David (eds.)

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Australian policy began to shift towards significantly increasing immigration. Legislative changes over the next few decades continuously opened up immigration in Australia.

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immediately to its north – thus bringing Australian and Japanese territory to a shared border – a situation altered only by Japan's Second World War invasion of New Guinea.

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remained the religion which was adhered to by the majority of Australians. The percentage of Australians who are religious, however, is dropping significantly each year.

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of a servile coloured race for greed of gain, and a few professional economists and benighted theologians, are now heard in serious criticism of a White Australia; but

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The growth of the sugar industry in Queensland in the 1870s led to searching for labourers prepared to work in a tropical environment. During this time, thousands of "

3527:

stated in 1947 to critics of the government's mass immigration programme: "We have 25 years at most to populate this country before the yellow races are down on us."

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United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, (2015). 'International Migration' in International migrant stock 2015. Accessed from

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Nevertheless, the annual non-European settler arrivals rose from 746 in 1966 to 2,696 in 1971, while annual part-European settler arrivals rose from 1,498 to 6,054.

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1947: The Chifley Labor government relaxed the Immigration Restriction Act allowing non-Europeans the right to settle permanently in Australia for business reasons.

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on Victorian goldfields problems and grievances. This led to restrictions being placed on Chinese immigration and residency taxes levied from Chinese residents in

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In 1981, the minister for immigration announced a special humanitarian assistance programme (SHP) for Iranians to seek refuge in Australia and by 1988 some 2,500

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stated that Australia no longer had a White Australia policy, but instead had a "restricted immigration policy". Earlier in the year he and immigration minister

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miners towards the successes of Chinese miners, led to tensions between groups and eventually a series of significant racist protests and riots, including the

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Objections to these arguments came largely from wealthy land owners in rural areas. It was argued that without Asiatics to work in the tropical areas of the

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accounted for the largest portions. China became Australia's biggest source of migrants for the first time in 2009, surpassing New Zealand and Britain.

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from 1855. New South Wales following suit with poll taxes and tonnage restrictions only in 1861. These restrictions remained in force only until 1867.

5779: 3837:'s review of immigration law in 1978 that all selection of prospective migrants based on country of origin was entirely removed from official policy. 2491: 9862: 9460: 7237: 6850: 6067: 5964: 5238: 4551: 3643:, under which students from Asian countries were admitted to study at Australian universities, though many more came as privately sponsored students. 3403:

starting in 1929 and the end of World War II in 1945, global conditions kept immigration to very low levels. At the start of the war, Prime Minister

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mentioned in modern contexts, although it is generally only mentioned by politicians when denouncing their opposition. As Leader of the Opposition,

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non-whites to become permanent residents and citizens after five years (the same as for Europeans), and also removed discriminatory provisions in

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Australian anxiety at the prospect of Japanese expansionism and war in the Pacific continued through the 1930s. Hughes, by then a minister in the

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as vital to the defence of Australia. The treaty ultimately granted Australia a League of Nations Mandate over German New Guinea and Japan to the

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in Australia in 1851 led to an influx of immigrants from all around the world. The colony of Victoria had a population of only 77,000 in 1851 and

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refers to countries, regions and territories in which the majority ethnic group is generally considered to be people of white European descent.

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Jupp, James (Spring 1995). "From 'White Australia' to 'Part of Asia': Recent Shifts in Australian Immigration Policy towards the Region".

6097: 11528: 8609: 5652: 3793:, in which he made it clear that he maintained his view that non-European people should not be allowed to settle in Australia. He wrote: 1359: 945: 461: 5630: 4508:

Hanson was widely accused of trying to take Australia back to the days of the White Australia policy, particularly through reference to

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seeking to immigrate to Australia were classified as "Asiatic" by the policy and were denied entry. In 1949, Calwell's successor,

3392:, made a notable contribution to Australia's attitude towards immigration in a 1935 speech in which he argued that "Australia must 11590: 10998: 9688: 9004: 8037: 8022: 5801: 4130: 3311: 2593: 2578: 2563: 42: 10972: 3256:

In 1901, there were approximately 9,800 Pacific Islander labourers in Queensland. In 1901, the Australian parliament passed the

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Legislated that all migrants, regardless of origin, be eligible to obtain citizenship after three years of permanent residence.

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was a set of racial policies that aimed to forbid people of non-European non-white ethnic origins – especially

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would be totally disregarded as a component for immigration to Australia in 1973. In 1975, the Whitlam government passed the

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Dixon, Chris. "Confronting the 'Bulwark of White Supremacy': The African American Challenge to White Australia, 1941–1945."

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Howard later retracted and apologised for the remarks, and was returned to the leadership of the Liberal Party in 1995. The

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was already concerned by the prospect of Japanese expansion in the Pacific. Australia, Japan and New Zealand had seized the

3026:" and refers to the recruitment of people, often through trickery and kidnappings, to work on plantations, particularly the 8398: 7874: 7814: 7535: 3854:

population tripled in the six decades to around 21 million in 2010, comprising people originating from 200 countries.

3754:

set about removing the White Australia Policy from the Labor platform. Attempts in 1959 and 1961 failed, with Labor leader

2148: 1165: 436: 250: 6944: 4897: 3810:

implemented a series of amendments preventing the enforcement of racial aspects of the immigration law. These amendments:

3491:... they are encouraged by the ill-timed and inappropriate pronouncements of what are, after all, irresponsible officials. 11605: 11575: 11479: 11200: 10757: 8101: 6533: 5935: 4531: 4135: 2215: 1825: 1481: 1394: 1285: 935: 753: 371: 356: 3287: 3137:. The support of the Labor Party was contingent upon restricting non-white immigration, reflecting the attitudes of the 75: 10948: 8981: 8832: 8816: 7028: 4208: 3625: 3602: 3556: 2827: 1379: 835: 128: 6695: 5479: 4973:. Commonwealth of Australia: National Communications Branch, Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Archived from 3047:

and retained the same rights as their Anglo and southern compatriots, although they faced significant discrimination.

9128: 7829: 7711: 7685: 7496: 7106: 7086: 7066: 6288: 5919: 4725:

The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry are part of the

3501: 3331: 3257: 2986:

jobs. Shortages of labour led to high wages for a prosperous skilled working class, whose unions demanded and got an

2513: 1009: 840: 302: 280: 108: 10943: 6380: 5232:"Towards White Australia: The shadow of Mill and the spectre of slavery in the 1880s debates on Chinese immigration" 3632:

1949: Immigration Minister Holt permitted 800 non-European refugees to stay, and Japanese war brides to be admitted.

3561: 3510:

Dutch migrants arriving in Australia in 1954. Australia embarked upon a massive immigration programme following the

11474: 9446: 9138: 9098: 9009: 5123:"End of the White Australia policy – Australia's Defining Moments Digital Classroom – National Museum of Australia" 5122: 4612: 4543: 4517: 4309: 3423: 3173: 3167: 2867: 2799: 2296: 1778: 1607: 1501: 940: 830: 57: 5549: 11595: 11550: 11088: 9197: 8790: 8552: 8540: 8391: 8091: 7864: 7577:

Jordan, Matthew (2017). "'Not on Your Life': Cabinet and Liberalisation of the White Australia Policy, 1964–67".

7259: 7166:

Ihde, Erin (2008). "Australia Federates, Australia Celebrates". In Roberts, David Andrew; Crotty, Martin (eds.).

6037: 4440: 4027: 3282: 2568: 2141: 1354: 847: 591: 386: 10918: 10680: 5796: 5440: 4842: 3802:

The Whitlam Labor government brought about the comprehensive legal end of the White Australia policy in 1973 as

11321: 11290: 11038: 11019: 10967: 9376: 9314: 9202: 8530: 8081: 7927: 4974: 4140: 4067: 3826: 3261: 2850: 2447: 2291: 446: 46: 7370:"'While all Muslims are not terrorists, certainly all terrorists these days are Muslims,' Senator Anning said" 6598: 6350: 3506: 601: 11464: 11071: 10961: 10653: 9212: 9165: 9108: 8993: 8906: 4668: 4313: 3531:

Until 1952, Australia did not permit Japanese women who had married Australian soldiers to enter Australia.

3184: 2361: 2055: 1763: 426: 10928: 11250: 10985: 9170: 9093: 9025: 8999: 8686: 8371: 8096: 8076: 7822: 6384: 6175: 5776: 4213: 3319: 3314:. The "No" campaign claimed that conscripted soldiers sent overseas would be replaced by non-white labour. 3129:

which came to power following the first elections of the Commonwealth parliament in 1901 was formed by the

2855: 2690: 2558: 1312: 1260: 181: 9469: 7894: 7233: 6059: 5971: 5231: 3054:. However, in attempting to enact this legislation, the governors of New South Wales, South Australia and 11512: 10992: 9319: 9160: 9113: 9078: 9047: 8456: 8358: 8226: 8043: 4539: 4155: 4057: 3803: 3540: 3219: 3022:. This and related practices of bringing in non-white labour to be cheaply employed was commonly termed " 2845: 2812: 2662: 2403: 1966: 1810: 1215: 798: 736: 3294:. During that same period, their right to settle in Australia was facilitated by their shared status as 11560: 11055: 10913: 10903: 10708: 10588: 9627: 9155: 9019: 9014: 8987: 8877: 8821: 8768: 7937: 7884: 4485: 4077: 3035: 2469: 2075: 820: 481: 196: 8599: 6228: 5730: 5683: 5393: 3083:

In writing about the preoccupations of the Australian population in early Federation Australia before

2822:

Successive governments dismantled the policy in stages after the conclusion of World War II, with the

2573: 2442: 139:

was a member of the association. The badge shows the use of the slogan "White Australia" at that time.

11295: 11244: 11216: 9935: 9632: 9324: 9123: 9073: 8444: 7909: 7904: 7210: 4324: 4125: 2709: 2605: 1406: 1220: 1109: 989: 643: 611: 260: 186: 9334: 6938:"Multicultural Australia: United in Diversity (Social Engineering and the Enforcement of Diversity)" 6717: 5186:

Lockwood, R. (1964). "British Imperial Influences in the Foundation of the White Australia Policy".

82: 10775: 10205: 9304: 8917: 8746: 8642: 8353: 6943:. The Australian Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs. Archived from 4120: 3884: 3789:

supported the White Australia policy. This is reflected by Calwell's comments in his 1972 memoirs,

3327: 3138: 2746: 2339: 1672: 1560: 1401: 1170: 1094: 917: 872: 726: 606: 581: 511: 441: 317: 9063: 4439:(1996–2007) in turn ran a large programme of non-discriminatory immigration and, according to the 3568:, allowed the remaining 800 non-white refugees to apply for residency, and also allowed Japanese " 11517: 11326: 11124: 10641: 10624: 10492: 10352: 10128: 9965: 9830: 9825: 9500: 9238: 9233: 9118: 8691: 8221: 8086: 5829: 4924:"Australia's history of anti-Italian racism echoes grotesquely in rhetoric about Sudanese people" 4743: 4726: 4585: 4180: 4165: 3888: 3868: 3653:

abolished the dictation test and introduced a simpler system for entry. Immigration Minister Sir

3545: 3463: 3451: 3443: 3150: 2790: 2205: 2172: 1971: 1951: 1805: 1795: 1753: 1369: 1210: 1059: 1054: 1024: 1019: 962: 897: 882: 815: 788: 773: 147: 35: 7992: 7788: 6538: 4607:"). He was again criticised by politicians across the board after blaming Muslim immigration to 3345:'s territories in the Pacific in the early stages of the war and Hughes was concerned to retain 999: 11118: 10979: 10879: 10820: 10367: 10342: 10337: 10252: 10170: 10133: 9997: 9773: 9763: 9723: 9657: 9495: 9487: 8414: 8231: 7932: 6089: 5320:"ParlInfo – 1898 Australasian Federation Conference : Third Session: Debates – February 8" 4739: 4673: 4654: 4502: 4304: 4175: 3688:

Menzies: "Well if I were not described as a racist I'd be the only public man who hasn't been."

3475: 3427: 3408: 3385: 3342: 3291: 3280:

in Australia, making them a notable exception to the White Australia Policy. In 1902, with the

3260:(1 Edward VII 16 1901). The result of these statutes was that 7,500 Pacific Islanders (called " 3236: 3143: 3134: 2894: 2762: 2251: 2070: 2043: 2033: 1491: 1471: 1334: 1205: 1089: 1034: 1004: 984: 912: 892: 867: 862: 857: 768: 731: 704: 675: 670: 596: 245: 235: 9510: 7657:

McDonald, Peter. (2019) "Migration to Australia: From Asian exclusion to Asian predominance."

6412:"Academic Howard Nathan says Australia's race relations changed 'immeasurably for the better'" 5613:

Donald Norman Cameron (Free Trade Party) Parliamentary Debates, cited in D.M. Gibb (1973)p.112

3679:

Lamb: "For these years of course in the past Sir Robert you have been described as a racist."

2966:

opening in all cities and most regional towns in the following forty years. During the 1880s,

11434: 11029: 10785: 10701: 10467: 10417: 10357: 10322: 10317: 10262: 10091: 10081: 10054: 9901: 9884: 9869: 9768: 9713: 9703: 9693: 9637: 9607: 9557: 9547: 9427: 9339: 9274: 9042: 8837: 8810: 8800: 8779: 8707: 8509: 8484: 8281: 8214: 7982: 7851: 7524:

Skilled Workers or Marginalised Poor? The African Population of the United Kingdom, 1812–1852

5624: 4589: 4513: 4334: 4185: 4115: 4097: 4052: 4001: 3977: 3581: 3459: 3240: 3215: 2955: 2672: 2553: 2503: 2437: 2038: 1998: 1931: 1820: 1768: 1687: 1436: 1200: 1099: 1074: 1069: 1049: 1044: 1039: 979: 927: 887: 793: 763: 653: 255: 7962: 7844: 7571: 11285: 11107: 11098: 11082: 10810: 10593: 10573: 10519: 10477: 10452: 10442: 10377: 10292: 10267: 10242: 10230: 10200: 10192: 10086: 10029: 9970: 9940: 9820: 9780: 9753: 9678: 9673: 9612: 9592: 9572: 9552: 9396: 9369: 9344: 9294: 9083: 8827: 8773: 8712: 8451: 8342: 8291: 8286: 7977: 7809: 6415: 6319: 6060:"Allies in adversity, Australia and the Dutch in the Pacific War – Australian War Memorial" 6003: 4712:

As a percentage of 21,769,209 persons who nominated their ancestry at the 2016 census. The

4659: 4581: 4423: 4319: 3867:

The policy had the effect of creating a population of overwhelmingly European, and largely

3772: 3726: 3671:'s Stewart Lamb in 1955, where he appeared to be a defender of the White Australia Policy. 3550: 3277: 2923: 2702: 2685: 2525: 2508: 2236: 2232: 1909: 1421: 1295: 1114: 994: 952: 902: 877: 685: 648: 376: 230: 10646: 6828: 5738:

The Naturalist and his "Beautiful Islands": Charles Morris Woodford in the Western Pacific

5691:

The Naturalist and his "Beautiful Islands": Charles Morris Woodford in the Western Pacific

5401:

The Naturalist and his "Beautiful Islands": Charles Morris Woodford in the Western Pacific

5271: 3841: 3646:

1957: Non-Europeans with 15 years' residence in Australia were allowed to become citizens.

8: 11452: 11447: 11439: 11280: 11205: 11012: 10841: 10746: 10663: 10598: 10568: 10559: 10554: 10472: 10457: 10407: 10402: 10397: 10387: 10382: 10347: 10332: 10327: 10302: 10272: 10257: 10247: 10215: 10210: 10111: 10106: 10049: 9975: 9923: 9874: 9847: 9813: 9738: 9708: 9652: 9647: 9519: 9422: 9103: 8959: 8947: 8935: 8911: 8805: 8762: 8604: 8557: 8261: 8186: 8164: 8159: 8106: 6657: 4713: 4683: 4678: 4547: 4238: 4007: 3995: 3947: 3265: 3130: 2770: 2642: 2583: 2308: 2256: 2246: 2085: 1946: 1565: 1461: 1441: 1230: 1138: 1084: 1064: 1029: 922: 709: 506: 8889: 7972: 6632: 3438:

remained pre-occupied with the battles of the Atlantic and Mediterranean in the face of

11424: 11419: 11195: 10873: 10815: 10795: 10668: 10658: 10619: 10534: 10507: 10502: 10482: 10392: 10372: 10362: 10307: 10297: 10282: 10116: 10101: 10039: 10034: 9990: 9980: 9950: 9928: 9808: 9803: 9587: 9269: 9217: 9036: 8973: 8953: 8929: 8734: 8637: 8567: 8479: 8439: 8049: 8032: 8027: 8002: 7987: 7919: 7899: 7889: 7859: 7594: 6495: 6477: 6459: 6441: 5909: 5905: 5777:"Australian South Sea Islanders: A Century of Race Discrimination under Australian Law" 5207: 4577: 4560: 3959: 3953: 3929: 3807: 3731: 3650: 3613: 3535: 3447: 3357: 3350: 3066: 3043: 3019: 2934: 2911: 2841: 2832: 2830:

governments encouraging non-British non white Europeans to immigrate to Australia. The

2823: 2755: 2413: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2241: 2210: 2180: 1850: 1845: 1835: 1783: 1773: 1748: 1682: 1640: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1446: 721: 10685:

Census of Population and Housing: Reflecting Australia - Stories from the Census, 2016

8383: 11489: 11429: 11394: 11275: 11185: 11066: 11006: 10825: 10497: 10462: 10312: 10287: 10277: 10235: 10225: 10220: 10175: 10165: 10150: 10138: 9985: 9906: 9879: 9857: 9795: 9718: 9289: 8940: 8751: 8680: 8256: 8137: 7726: 7707: 7681: 7628:"Immigrant who fought White Australia policy for right to vote leaves lasting legacy" 7598: 7546: 7492: 7473: 7458: 7173: 7129: 7102: 7082: 7062: 6565: 6284: 6185: 6143: 5915: 5741: 5694: 5581: 5508: 5473: 5404: 5199: 5079: 5054: 5026: 5001: 4931: 4822: 4664: 4572: 4464: 4436: 4349: 4253: 4082: 3971: 3965: 3834: 3560:

which gave the immigration minister sweeping powers of deportation. In 1948, Iranian

3455: 3415: 3346: 3126: 2774: 2652: 2541: 2520: 2117: 2028: 1956: 1941: 1724: 1667: 1466: 1374: 1265: 1185: 1014: 285: 7662: 7517:. Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade / Federation Press. 11368: 11076: 11061: 11049: 10908: 10884: 10867: 10862: 10437: 10412: 10155: 9406: 9279: 9145: 8923: 8843: 8757: 8614: 8589: 8307: 8191: 8132: 8122: 7586: 5191: 4636: 4459: 4374: 4339: 4228: 4087: 3989: 3983: 3941: 3743:

that "the unlimited influx of colored people would lead to stresses in Australia".

3518:

Following the trauma of the Second World War, Australia's vulnerability during the

3511: 3467: 3400: 3389: 3295: 3223: 3027: 2919: 2742: 2647: 2080: 2065: 1993: 1914: 1884: 1699: 1535: 1235: 783: 778: 616: 501: 7590: 3172:

The new Federal Parliament, as one of its first pieces of legislation, passed the

2610: 11499: 11305: 11270: 11190: 11044: 10954: 10933: 10800: 10790: 10563: 9030: 8895: 8740: 8594: 8572: 8545: 8463: 8296: 8068: 7957: 7755: 7167: 7123: 6776: 6235: 5783: 5307: 4805: 4354: 3767: 3763: 3721: 3709: 3514:

and gradually dismantled the preferential treatment afforded to British migrants.

3365:

rejected. When the proposal failed, Hughes reported in the Australian parliament:

3361: 3323: 3059: 2890: 2840:

removed discrimination against non-white applicants for citizenship in 1966. The

2837: 2548: 2301: 2095: 2003: 1899: 1840: 1692: 1677: 1657: 1622: 1329: 1240: 1175: 957: 907: 680: 526: 8562: 7666:

Stratton, Jon. "The Colour of Jews: Jews, Race and the White Australia Policy."

3244:

vastly different cultures of the highly populated nations to Australia's north.

2188: 11484: 11336: 11300: 11255: 11177: 11156: 10938: 10923: 10857: 10770: 9329: 9248: 9207: 9088: 8883: 8621: 8579: 8348: 8266: 8241: 8236: 8149: 6974: 4890: 4604: 4509: 4218: 4092: 3907: 3786: 3755: 3598: 3524: 3419: 3192: 2987: 2959: 2938: 2915: 2808: 2738: 2476: 2366: 2090: 2048: 2018: 2008: 1926: 1919: 1904: 1894: 1714: 1650: 1592: 1587: 1572: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1225: 1160: 658: 631: 471: 155: 6599:"Refugee Policies in an Election Campaign [Australian Fabian Society]" 5939: 5871:"Remembering the war in New Guinea – Why were the Japanese were in New Guinea" 5600:

Bruce Smith (Free Trade Party) Parliamentary Debates cited in D.M. Gibb (1973)

5295:

Speech to Colonial Conference of 1897, quoted in J. Holland Rose et al., eds.

5237:. 11th Biennial National Conference of the Australian Historical Association. 3925:

In the 2016 Australian census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:

11544: 11407: 11378: 11373: 11363: 9132: 8728: 8489: 8331: 8251: 8127: 8012: 7869: 7004:. Commonwealth of Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics. 7 August 2007. 5936:"100 Years: The Australia Story. Episode 2: Rise and Fall of White Australia" 5203: 5045: 4935: 4596: 4243: 4233: 4203: 4062: 3751: 3636: 3577: 3188: 3177: 2971: 2907: 2804: 2794: 2782: 2657: 2635: 2481: 2408: 2102: 1709: 1645: 1630: 1486: 1451: 1431: 1302: 1245: 1180: 548: 451: 136: 123: 5542:"Manne's Generation: White Nation Responses to the Stolen Generation Report" 4891:"Collaborating on whiteness: representing Italians in early White Australia" 4843:"A history of the Department of Immigration:managing migration to Australia" 11469: 11383: 11260: 11240: 11170: 10724: 9401: 8657: 8652: 8434: 6827:. Department of Immigration and Citizenship. 11 August 2009. Archived from 6687: 5441:"Within China's Orbit: China through the eyes of the Australian Parliament" 4688: 4494: 4299: 4223: 4072: 3872: 3657:

announced that "distinguished and highly qualified Asians" might immigrate.

3654: 3640: 3338: 3113: 3092: 3023: 2967: 2766: 2750: 1936: 1815: 1635: 1602: 1582: 1506: 1496: 1476: 1456: 1079: 972: 967: 690: 665: 516: 456: 421: 391: 132: 9438: 7559:

Hund, Wulf D. (2006) "White Australia oder der Krieg der Historiker." In:

5297:

The Cambridge History of the British Empire: Volume VII: Part I: Australia

3820:

Issued policy to totally disregard race as a factor in selecting migrants.

3660:

1959: Australians were permitted to sponsor Asian spouses for citizenship.

3442:

aggression in Europe. A Japanese invasion fleet headed for the Australian

2749:

in order to create a "white/British" ideal focused on but not exclusively

2324: 11494: 11356: 11265: 10765: 9479: 9381: 9309: 9243: 8494: 8007: 7530:

Eldershaw, Philip S. "The Exclusion of Asiatic Immigrants in Australia."

6251:

Graham Hassall (1989). "Persian Baháʼís in Australia". In Abe Ata (ed.).

5046: 4608: 4555: 4512:, one of the policy's strongest supporters. In her maiden address to the 4419: 4329: 3935: 3919: 3915: 3747: 3739: 3717: 3705: 3663:

1964: Conditions of entry for people of non-European origin were relaxed.

3593: 3565: 3519: 3431: 3404: 3276:

Māori generally benefited from the same immigration and voting rights as

3108: 3103: 3084: 2983: 2963: 2815: 2630: 1830: 1790: 1758: 1617: 1577: 1411: 1324: 1275: 1250: 1150: 825: 538: 521: 476: 396: 10897: 7845:

Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)

5211: 11457: 11341: 11222: 11150: 9253: 8317: 8174: 8169: 8154: 7515:

Every Assistance & Protection: a History of the Australian Passport

6658:"Australian Government Department of Immigration and Border Protection" 6320:"Australian Government Department of Immigration and Border Protection" 4600: 4258: 4248: 3817:

Ratified all international agreements relating to immigration and race.

3735:

the changes would allow around 5,000 non-whites to obtain citizenship.

3435: 3306: 2903: 2778: 2452: 2227: 2112: 2107: 1988: 1983: 1879: 1855: 1704: 1597: 1555: 1511: 1319: 1307: 1280: 1270: 1190: 565: 560: 531: 466: 307: 6029: 4475:

In one of his numerous criticisms of multiculturalism, Blainey wrote:

2997: 11414: 11331: 11145: 10805: 9284: 8848: 8209: 8142: 7997: 7470:

Consuming Whiteness. Australian Racism and the 'White Sugar' Campaign

5195: 4649: 4170: 4037: 3569: 3051: 2979: 2949: 2886: 2667: 2457: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2317: 2261: 2013: 1961: 1662: 1255: 341: 7401:"Outrage as Fraser Anning blames NZ attacks on 'Muslim immigration'" 6998:"Chapter – Migration: permanent additions to Australia's population" 24: 11113: 9364: 8302: 6602: 6139:

Australia's China: Changing Perceptions from the 1930s to the 1990s

5938:. Australian Broadcasting Commission. 21 March 2001. Archived from 3478:

confidence in demanding their rights upon return to civilian life.

3055: 1978: 1800: 1719: 1364: 1290: 1195: 1155: 496: 491: 486: 411: 406: 351: 7618:

Laksiri Jayasuriya; Walker, David; and Gothard, Jan (eds.) (2003)

7532:

The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

6883:. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 23 October 2017. Archived from 4599:

delivered his maiden speech to the Senate. In it, he called for a

3830:

made the use of racial criteria for any official purpose illegal.

3667:

This was despite comments Menzies made in a discussion with radio

3146:

as part of an effort to maintain Australia's white character.

3095:, considered the White Australia Policy and defined it as follows: 2877: 2758:

removed the last racial elements of Australia's immigration laws.

11351: 8966: 8504: 8499: 8276: 8246: 3903: 3899: 3015: 3001: 2531: 416: 312: 292: 265: 240: 163: 5629:. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. 5478:. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. 4422:

argued for restricting Asian immigration in 1988 as part of his

11346: 10693: 9391: 8429: 8271: 6754:. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 3 April 2019. Archived from 4769:"Australian Natives Association Centenary – Monument Australia" 4716:

collects information on ancestry, but not on race or ethnicity.

4505:

received 9% of the national vote at the 1998 Federal Election.

4444: 3902:. In 2018 the five largest immigrant groups were those born in 3116:

summarised the feeling of the Anglo-Saxon people in Australia:

2734: 1416: 401: 297: 275: 270: 220: 9015:

Monosodium glutamate controversy (Chinese restaurant syndrome)

2929: 2769:

opposition to the importation of Pacific Islanders (primarily

11163: 9386: 6795:(Report). Australian Government: Department of Home Affairs. 5379:

Brian Carroll; From Barton to Fraser; Cassell Australia; 1978

4565: 4448: 3911: 3701: 3471: 2975: 2893:

just 200,000, but the huge influx of settlers spurred by the

2222: 1426: 225: 10681:

Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013

6090:"Indigenous Australian servicemen – Australian War Memorial" 3759:

conference; Dunstan personally took credit for the change.

7723: