Women in ancient Rome

793: 422: 1178: 1777: 386: 550: 2472: 1989: 2264: 465:(chastity) was a goddess of feminine purity, and was worshipped by Roman women. Only those who were virgins were allowed to enter the temple. A woman's sexual life began with the consummation of her marriage in her husband's cubiculum (private room), where slaves did not enter. In Roman houses, it was common for men and women to each have their own cubicula, allowing the potential for them to carry on separate sex lives. While it was expected that women should only have sexual relations with their husbands, it was common for a man to have many sexual partners throughout his life. After marriage, women were scrutinized in the household to prevent any adulterous behavior. For example, 1169: 1061: 879: 1303: 2047: 1856: 486:

for being in healthy relationships, and punished if unmarried or childless. Additionally, Augustus enforced the divorce and punishment of adulterous wives. Women under his rule could be punished in the courts for adultery and banished. A woman's private relationships now became a publicly regulated matter. The palace was secured and driven by the idea that women would be returned to their proper places as chaste wives and mothers, and thus household order would be restored. Augustus went so far as to punish and exile his own daughter, Julia, for engaging in extramarital affairs.

972: 382:). Slaves, who had no legal standing, were part of the household as property. In the early Empire, the legal standing of daughters differed little if at all from that of sons. If the father died without a will, the right of a daughter to share in the family property was equal to that of a son, though legislation in the 2nd century BCE had attempted to limit this right. Even apart from legal status, daughters seem no less esteemed within the Roman family than sons, though sons were expected to ensure family standing by following their fathers into public life. 1006: 264: 19: 418:, but to a lesser degree than their children. By the early Empire, however, a daughter's legal relationship to her father remained unchanged when she married, even though she moved into her husband's home. This arrangement was one of the factors in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the early modern period. Although a Roman woman had to answer to her father legally, she did not conduct her daily life under his direct scrutiny, and her husband had no legal power over her. 2202: 1742:. Their vow of chastity freed them of the traditional obligation to marry and rear children, but its violation carried a heavy penalty: a Vestal found to have polluted her office by breaking her vow was given food, water, and entombed alive. The independence of the Vestals thus existed in relation to the prohibitions imposed on them. In addition to conducting certain religious rites, the Vestals participated at least symbolically in every official sacrifice, as they were responsible for preparing the required ritual substance 272:

marriage whenever and with whomever they saw fit. Marriage facilitated a partnership between the father and prospective husbands, and enabled the formation of a mutually beneficial alliance with both political and economic incentives at heart. The girls would leave their own families and join their husbands. The social regime, geared towards early marriage and implemented through children's education and upbringing, was particularly restrictive for girls. Some, perhaps many, girls went to a

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their knowledge to their daughters in a manner appropriate to their station in life, given the emphasis in Roman society on traditionalism. Virginity and sexual purity were culturally valued qualities considered vital for the stability of both family and state. The rape of an unmarried girl posed a threat to her reputation and marriageability, and the penalty of death was sometimes imposed on the unchaste daughter. The Emperor Augustus introduced marriage legislation, the

1646: 203: 1405: 664: 1431:; among the elite, moralists extolled female domesticity. Rome's political system involved citizen men exclusively—as politicians, representatives, magistrates, executives or voters. Many women had citizen rights but none had the vote, regardless of their wealth or their position in Roman society. though some elite women could manipulate or persuade their husbands and through them exercise political influence and in some cases, control. 780:, when a woman remained under her father's authority by law even when she moved into her husband's home. This arrangement was one of the factors in the independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period: So-called "free" marriage caused no change in personal status for either the wife or the husband. Free marriage usually involved two citizens, or a citizen and a person who held 333:

the tasks of the female within the household. Elite families poured money into their daughters' literary and virtue training to equip them with skills that would appeal to prospective husbands. Epictetus suggests that at the age of 14, girls were considered to be on the brink of womanhood and beginning to understand the inevitability of their future role as wives. They learned modesty through explicit instruction and upbringing.

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remarrying. The duration may have allowed for pregnancy: if a woman had become pregnant just before her husband's death, the period of ten months ensured that no question of paternity -- which might affect the child's social status and inheritance -- arose. No law prohibited pregnant women from marrying, and there are well-known instances: Augustus married Livia when she was carrying her former husband's child, and the

1947: 591:, the modesty appropriate to one's station. It has been noted that while women were often impugned for their feeblemindedness and ignorance of the law, and thus in need of protection by male advocates, in reality actions were taken to restrict their influence and effectiveness. Despite this specific restriction, there are numerous examples of women taking informed actions in legal matters in the Late Republic and 2153: 784:, and in the later Imperial period and with official permission, soldier-citizens and non-citizens. In a free marriage a bride brought a dowry to the husband: if the marriage ended with no cause of adultery he returned most of it. The law's separation of property was so total that gifts between spouses were not recognized as such. If a couple divorced or even separated, the giver could reclaim the gift. 2601: 2537:

Calatoria Themis, but Iusta maintained that she had been born after her mother's manumission. Calatoria, by now a widow, in turn argued that Iusta was born before her mother was free and that she had been manumitted, therefore owing her former owner the service due a patron. Calatoria could produce no documentation of this supposed manumission, and the case came down to the testimony of witnesses.

2408:, and was recognized by most Roman medical writers as a likely result when women engage in intensive physical regimens for extended periods of time. Balancing food, exercise, and sexual activity came to be regarded as a choice that women might make. The observation that intensive training was likely to result in amenorrhea implies that there were women who engaged in such regimens. 542:, by her relation to a man. The independent Maesia spoke in her own defense, and was acquitted almost unanimously after only a short trial because she spoke with such strength and effectiveness. Since these characteristics were considered masculine, however, the historian opined that under her feminine appearance, she had a "virile spirit", and thereafter she was called "the 2242:, begun while a woman was still a virgin, was thought to prevent sagging. Breasts receive relatively minimal attention in erotic art and literature as a sexual focus; the breast was associated primarily with nursing infants and a woman's role as a mother. In times of extreme emotional duress, such as mourning or captivity in wartime, women might bare their breasts as an 1460:(234–149) describe Rome's matrons, who collectively protested against the law on the streets of Rome, as an "army of women" seeking to undermine the authority of his own gender and class, even the very existence of Rome, in their pursuit of unrestrained licence to spend money—which he describes as a particularly female disease that could never be cured, only suppressed. 1272:, "was that the women appear as much engaged in business and as interested in speculations as the men. Money is their first care. They work their estates, invest their funds, lend and borrow. We find one among Cicero's creditors, and two among his debtors." Although Roman society did not allow women to gain official political power, it did allow them to enter business. 957:, declining to offer his young daughter to the 60-year-old orator instead. After the widowed Marcia inherited considerable wealth, Cato married her again, in a ceremony lacking many of the formalities. Women might be mocked, however, for marrying too often or capriciously, particularly if it could be implied that sexual appetites or vanity were motives. 1131:

women were not only valued for the number of children that they produced, but also for their part in raising and educating children to become good citizens. To rear children for successful lives, an exemplary Roman mother needed to be well-educated herself. One of the Roman women most famous for their strength and influence as a mother was

612:, the law required the equal division of his estate amongst his children, regardless of their age and sex. A will that did otherwise, or emancipated any family member without due process of law, could be challenged. From the late Republic onward, a woman who inherited a share equal with her brothers would have been independent of 832:, divorce was relatively common and "shame-free", the subject of gossip rather than a social disgrace. Valerius says that Lucius Annius was disapproved of because he divorced his wife without consulting his friends; that is, he undertook the action for his own purposes and without considering its effects on his social network ( 1033:, "that the man who struck his wife or child laid violent hands on the holiest of holy things." A man of status during the Roman Republic was expected to behave moderately toward his wife and to define himself as a good husband. Wife beating was sufficient grounds for divorce or other legal action against the husband. 1256:

symbol of a wife's duties, and equipment for spinning might appear on the funeral monument of a woman to show that she was a good and honorable matron. Even women of the upper classes were expected to be able to spin and weave in virtuous emulation of their rustic ancestors—a practice ostentatiously observed by

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Greene, E.M. (2015) 'Girls or Boys on the Column of Trajan? Depictions of Female Participation in Military Religion' presented at 116th Joint Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America and the Society for Classical Studies (formerly the American Philological Association), January 8–11,

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Women could turn to prostitution to support themselves, but not all prostitutes had freedom to decide. There is some evidence that even slave prostitutes could benefit from their labor. Although rape was a crime, the law only punished the rape of a slave if it "damaged the goods", because a slave had

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had his mother or grandmother take part in Senate proceedings. The author regarded this as one of Elagabalus's many scandals, and reported that the Senate's first act upon his death was to restore the ban on attendance by women. According to the same work, Elagabalus also established a women's senate

901:

The frequency of remarriage among the elite was high. Speedy remarriage was not unusual, and perhaps even customary, for aristocratic Romans after the death of a spouse. While no formal waiting period was dictated for a widower, it was customary for a woman to remain in mourning for ten months before

485:

The focus on a woman's purity and on her role as a faithful wife and dutiful mother in the family increased during the reign of Augustus. This general campaign to improve family dynamics began in 18–17 BC. Augustus' new laws targeted both men and women between the ages of 20 and 55, who were rewarded

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Girls were expected to safeguard their chastity, modesty and reputation, in preparation for eventual marriage. The light regulation of marriage by the law with regards to minimum age (12) and consent to marriage was designed to leave families, primarily fathers, with much freedom to propel girls into

1970:

was not excluded. One of the most vexed questions of Roman social life is whether the sexes bathed together in public. Until the late Republic, evidence suggests that women usually bathed in a separate wing or facility, or that women and men were scheduled at different times. But there is also clear

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in 8 CE, his wife exploited social connections and legal maneuvers to hold on to the family's property, on which their livelihood depended. Ovid expresses his love and admiration for her lavishly in the poetry he wrote during his exile. Frugality, parsimony, and austerity were characteristics of the

940:

indicates that a second wedding among Romans was likely to be a quieter affair, as a widow would still feel the absence of her dead husband, and a divorcée ought to feel shame. But while the circumstances of divorce might be shameful or embarrassing, and remaining married to the same person for life

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when they were preparing for marriage. Noble girls were known to marry as young as 12 years of age, whereas females in the lower classes were more likely to marry slightly further into their teenage years. (Boys, however, had to be at least 14.) An example of the marriage age of noble females can be

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asking for the destruction of their household, workshop, work, and livelihood. The status of ordinary women who owned a business seems to have been regarded as exceptional. Laws during the Imperial period aimed at punishing women for adultery exempted those "who have charge of any business or shop"

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had the right and duty to find a husband for his daughter, and first marriages were normally arranged. Technically, the couple had to be old enough to consent, but the age of consent was 12 for girls and 14 for boys. However, in practice boys seem to have been on average five years older. Among the

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at the time of his death, was distinguished for her musicianship and her knowledge of geometry, literature, and philosophy. This degree of learning indicates formal preparation; however, among the lower classes education was limited and strongly geared towards the course of marriage, and performing

2180:

argued for its retention: personal morality and self-restraint were self-evidently inadequate controls on indulgence and luxury. Luxury provoked the envy and shame of those less well-off, and was therefore divisive. Roman women, in Cato's view, had showed only too clearly that their appetites once

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These highly public official duties for women contradict the commonplace notion that women in ancient Rome took part only in private or domestic religion. The dual male-female priesthoods may reflect the Roman tendency to seek a gender complement within the religious sphere; most divine powers are

2583:

agreements became enforceable by law. Prostitution was not limited to slaves or poor citizens; according to Suetonius, Caligula when converting his palace into a brothel employed upper class "matrons and youths" as prostitutes. Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula, Tacitus records that

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Aristocratic women managed a large and complex household. Since wealthy couples often owned multiple homes and country estates with dozens or even hundreds of slaves -- some of whom were educated and highly skilled -- this could be the equivalent of running a small corporation. In addition to the

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The lives of boys and girls began to diverge dramatically after they formally came of age, and memorials to women recognize their domestic qualities far more often than intellectual achievements. The skills a Roman matron needed to run a household required training, and mothers probably passed on

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The relationship of a former slave to her patron could be complicated. In one legal case, a woman named Petronia Iusta attempted to show—without a birth declaration to prove it—that she had been free-born. Her mother, she acknowledged, had been a slave in the household of Petronius Stephanus and

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One of the most important tasks for women was to oversee clothing production. In the early Roman period, the spinning of wool was a central domestic occupation and indicated a family's self-sufficiency, since the wool would be produced on their estates. Even in an urban setting, wool was often a

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The extent to which Roman women might expect their husbands to participate in the rearing of very young children seems to vary and is hard to determine. Traditionalists such as Cato appear to have taken an interest, as Cato liked to be present when his wife bathed and swaddled their child. Roman

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married younger than women of the lower classes. Most Roman women would have married in their late teens to early twenties. An aristocratic girl was expected to be a virgin when she married, as her young age might indicate. A daughter could legitimately refuse a match made by her parents only by

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Classical texts have little to say about women and the Roman army. Although the Emperor Augustus (reigned 27 BC–AD 14) made marriage by ordinary soldiers unlawful, this probably meant that while soldiers and women in distant provinces and settlements formed relationships and had children, their

1275:

Even women of wealth were not supposed to be idle ladies of leisure. Among the aristocracy, women as well as men lent money to their peers to avoid resorting to a moneylender. When Pliny was considering buying an estate, he factored in a loan from his mother-in-law as a guarantee rather than an

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A concubine was defined by Roman law as a woman living in a permanent monogamous relationship with a man not her husband. There was no dishonor in being a concubine or living with a concubine, and a concubine could become a wife. Gifts could be exchanged between the partners in concubinage, in

870:), a man or woman could end a marriage simply because he or she wanted to, and for no other reason. Unless the wife could prove the spouse was worthless, he kept the children. Because property had been kept separate during the marriage, divorce from a "free" marriage was a very easy procedure. 1737:

The Vestals possessed unique religious distinction, public status and privileges, and could exercise considerable political influence. It was also possible for them to amass "considerable wealth". Upon entering her office, a Vestal was emancipated from her father's authority. In archaic Roman

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Because elite marriages often occurred for reasons of politics or property, a widow or divorcée with assets in these areas faced few obstacles to remarrying. She was far more likely to be legally emancipated than a first-time bride, and to have a say in the choice of husband. The marriages of

341:, which rewarded marriage and childbearing. The legislation also imposed penalties on young persons who failed to marry and on those who committed adultery. Therefore, marriage and childbearing was made law between the ages of twenty-five and sixty for men, and twenty and fifty for women. 693:

meant that a married woman would be subjugated by her husband. That custom had died out by the 1st century BCE in favor of free marriage, which did not grant a husband any rights over his wife or cause any significant change to a newly-married woman's status. During the classical era of

1577:, where she attempted to gain the support of the Roman fleet and was instead arrested. Once the conspiracy was uncovered, she would reveal nothing even under torture, in contrast to the senators, who were not subjected to torture and yet raced to spill the details. Tacitus also praises 1294:

Because women had the right to own property, they might engage in the same business transactions and management practices as any landowner. As with their male counterparts, their management of slaves appears to have varied from relative care to negligence and outright abuse. During the

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for this reason. Wealthy women might tour the empire, often participating in or viewing local religious ceremonies or entertainments appropriate to their class and background at sites around the empire. Rich women traveled to the countryside during the summer when Rome became too hot.

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as well as Latin from an early age. Among the upper classes, women seem to have been well-educated, some highly so, and were sometimes praised by the male historians for their learning and cultivation. Some women became socially prominent, and even relatively independent.

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conspired to overthrow Caligula. The plot was discovered, and Lepidus was executed. Agrippina and Livilla were exiled, and returned from exile only when their paternal uncle Claudius came to power after Caligula's assassination in 41 CE. In turn, Claudius's third wife

210:

Childhood and upbringing in ancient Rome were determined by social status. Roman children played a number of games, and their toys are known from archaeology and literary sources. Animal figures were popular, and some children kept live animals and birds as pets. In

1669:, the central rite of most major public ceremonies, though this was less a matter of prohibition than the fact that most priests presiding over state religion were men. Some cult practices were reserved for women only, for example, the rites of the Good Goddess ( 276:; however, there is some evidence to suggest that girls’ education was limited to this elementary school level. It has been inferred that individual school tutoring of girls at home was led by concerns about threats to girls’ modesty in coeducational classrooms. 2181:

corrupted knew no limits, and must be restrained. Large numbers of Roman matrons thought otherwise, and made concerted public protest. In 193 BCE the laws were abolished: Cato's opposition did not harm his political career. Later, in 42 BCE, Roman women, led by

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relationships were not recognised in Roman law. Two centuries or so later, the ban was lifted. It has been suggested that wives and children of centurions lived with them at border and provincial forts. Shoes in women's and children's sizes were found very near

1331:

Trade and manufacturing are not well represented in Roman literature, which was produced for and largely by the elite, but funerary inscriptions sometimes record the profession of the deceased, including women. Women are known to have owned and operated

637:, the legal right to certain privileges after bearing three children, was also released from guardianship, and the emperor Claudius banned agnatic guardianship. The role of guardianship as a legal institution gradually diminished, and by the 2nd century 190:. Forbidden from marriage or sex for a period of thirty years, the Vestals devoted themselves to the study and correct observance of rituals which were deemed necessary for the security and survival of Rome but which could not be performed by the male 2588:

had brothels filled with upper class women. Prostitution could also be a punishment instead of an occupation; a law of Augustus allowed that women guilty of adultery could be sentenced to work in brothels as prostitutes. The law was abolished in 389.

1916:. Ceres was a significant Goddess in terms of childrearing but also in raising the daughter to be a good mother and wife. Ceres relationship with her own daughter was used as an example as to how Roman mothers should go about raising their daughters. 1599:, which enacted very detailed rules prescribing the correct public behaviour, jewelry, clothing, chariots and sundry personal items for matrons. This apparently built upon previous, less formal but exclusive meetings of elite wives; and before that, 433:

A daughter was expected to be deferential toward her father and to remain loyal to him, even if it meant having to disagree with her husband's actions. For some, "deference" was not always absolute. After arranging his daughter's first two marriages,

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to women who conducted cases on their own behalf, or on behalf of others. These women got to show their ability as orators in the courtroom at a time when oratory was considered a defining pursuit of the most ambitious Roman men. One of these,

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no legal standing. The penalty was aimed at providing her owner compensation for the "damage" of his property. Because a slave woman was considered property under Roman law, forcing her to be a prostitute was not considered a crime. Prior to

2172:(215 BCE) to restrict personal and public extravagance. The law limited women's possession and display of gold and silver (as money or personal ornament), expensive clothing and their "unnecessary" use of chariots and litters. Victory over 1088:

mentions wet-nurses. Since a mother's milk was considered best for the baby, aristocratic women might still choose to breast-feed unless physical reasons prevented it. If a woman did choose not to nurse her own child, she could visit the

698:, marriage required no ceremony, but only a mutual will and agreement to live together in harmony. Marriage ceremonies, contracts, and other formalities were meant only to prove that a couple had, in fact, married. Under early or archaic 759:

transferred through her marriage, and any subsequently-acquired property belonged to her husband. Husbands could divorce their wives on grounds of adultery, and a few cases of divorce on the grounds of a wife's infertility are recorded.

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from the late Republic until the rise of Christian dominance in the later Empire. Some scholars have thought that only lower-class women bathed with men, or those of dubious moral standing such as entertainers or prostitutes, but

764:

marriage was an unequal relationship; it changed a woman’s intestate heirs from her siblings to her children, not because she was their mother but because her legal status was the same as that of a daughter to her husband. Under

914:, who commanded troops during the last civil war of the Republic and who was the first Roman woman to have her face on a coin, are thought to indicate her own political sympathies and ambitions. Fulvia was married first to the 4546:

Greene, E.M. (2014). “If the shoe fits: Style and function of children’s shoes from Vindolanda” in R. Collins and F. McIntosh (eds.), Life in the Limes: Studies of the People and Objects of the Roman Frontiers. Oxford: Oxbow.

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at the same site, bronze military discharge certificates were found, granting citizenship after 25 years of service and mentioning wives and children. In Germany, women's brooches and shoes were excavated at a military site.

1299:, Megallis and her husband Damophilus were both killed by their slaves on account of their brutality, but their daughter was spared because of her kindness and granted safe passage out of Sicily, along with an armed escort. 2271:

During the late Republic penalties for sexuality were barely enforced if at all, and a new erotic ideal of romantic relationship emerges. Subverting the tradition of male dominance, the love poets of the late Republic and

60:. But while Roman women held no direct political power, those from wealthy or powerful families could and did exert influence through private negotiations. Exceptional women who left an undeniable mark on history include 1928:". Nor was "private" the same as "secret": Romans were suspicious of secretive religious practices, and Cicero cautioned that nocturnal sacrifices were not to be performed by women, except for those ritually prescribed 453:) for life, not assuming that of her husband. Children usually took the father's name. In the Imperial period, however, children might sometimes make their mother's family name part of theirs, or even adopt it instead. 1966:. The wealthiest families had private baths at home, but most people went to bath houses not only to wash but to socialize, as the larger facilities offered a range of services and recreational activities, among which 1395:

families usually lacked kitchens. The need to buy prepared food meant that takeaway food was a thriving business. Most of the Roman poor, whether male or female, young or old, earned a living through their own labour.

318:

was sung by a choir of girls and boys. Children were made into virtuous adults through scholastic means, with curriculum, language, literature, and philosophy teaching moral precepts. Children of the elite were taught

1075:

Roman wives were expected to bear children, but the women of the aristocracy, accustomed to a degree of independence, showed a growing disinclination to devote themselves to traditional motherhood. By the 1st century

495:

There never was a case in court in which the quarrel was not started by a woman. If Manilia is not a defendant, she'll be the plaintiff; she will herself frame and adjust the pleadings; she will be ready to instruct

990:

and a woman who was a social inferior, such as a freedwoman or one who had a questionable background of poverty or prostitution, might enter into concubinage. Two partners who lacked the right to legal marriage, or

2706:. The legal status of a mother as a citizen affected her son's citizenship. All Roman citizens recognized as such by law did not hold equal rights and privileges, particularly in regard to holding high office. See 623:) appointed to her. She retained her powers of administration, however, and the guardian's main if not sole purpose was to give formal consent to actions. The guardian had no say in her private life, and a woman 2415:

recommends playing ball, swimming, walking, reading aloud, riding in vehicles, and travel as recreation, which would promote overall good health. In examining the causes of undesired childlessness, these later

1984:

prohibited mixed bathing, but the ban seems not to have endured. Most likely, customs varied not only by time and place, but by facility, so that women could choose to segregate themselves by gender or not.

1870:

onward, religious diversity became increasingly characteristic of the city of Rome. Many religions that were not part of Rome's earliest state cult offered leadership roles for women, among them the cult of

5302:(Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 11: The "notion of women as 'Same' as well as 'Other' presupposed a female body partly assimilated to the male constitution, one whose sex-specific functions, such as 2624: 296:

and other historians and philosophers suggest that the educational system was preoccupied with the development of masculine virtue, with male teenagers performing school exercises in public speaking about

1919:

Male writers vary in their depiction of women's religiosity: some represent women as paragons of Roman virtue and devotion, but also inclined by temperament to excessive religious devotion, the lure of

997:, might also do so. Concubinage differed from marriage chiefly in the status of children born from the relationship. Children had their mother's social rank, and not, as was customary, their father's. 2579:

clause to the slave to prevent her from being prostituted. The Ne Serva clause meant that if the new owner or any owner after him or her used the slave as a prostitute she would be free. Later on the

4586:(University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 134–136. In some sense, every head of household was a priest responsible for religious maintenance at home; in Roman patriarchal society, this was the 1734:

would have been responsible for the regular maintenance of a cult. Epitaphs provide the main evidence for these priesthoods, and the woman is often not identified in terms of her marital status.

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In most ways, freedwomen had the same legal status as freeborn women. But because under Roman law a slave had no father, freed slaves had no inheritance rights unless they were named in a will.

1048:, whom he kicked to death for criticizing him. Some modern historians believe that Poppaea died from a miscarriage or childbirth, and that the story was exaggerated to vilify Nero. The despised 2006:, and theatrical performances. By the late Republic, they regularly attended dinner parties, though in earlier times the women of a household dined in private together. Conservatives such as 565:

Maesia's ability to present a case "methodically and vigorously" suggests that while women did not plead regularly in open court, they had experience in private declamation and family court.

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to add color to their cheeks as well as using lead to highlight their eyes. They spent much time arranging their hair and often dyed it black, red, or blonde. They also wore wigs regularly.

227:

are sometimes found in the tombs of those who died before adulthood. The figures are typically 15–16 cm (5.9–6.3 in) tall, with jointed limbs, and made of materials such as wood,

2010:(234–149 BCE) considered it improper for women to take a more active role in public life; his complaints indicated that indeed some women did voice their opinions in the public sphere. 477:. Julius Caesar's mother, Aurelia, who monitored Pompeia's actions, prevented their private meetings. The mere possibility of Pompeia committing adultery caused Caesar to divorce her. 671:

Family tomb inscriptions of respectable Romans suggest that the ideal Roman marriage was one of mutual loyalty, in which husband and wife shared interests, activities, and property.

1336:. A woman might develop skills to complement her husband's trade, or manage aspects of his business. Artemis the gilder was married to Dionysius the helmet maker, as indicated by a 3362:(University of Toronto Press, 1990), p. 180. Alexander places the date of the trial, about which Valerius is unclear, to sometime between 80 and 50 BCE. The charge goes unrecorded. 4537:

Allison P. (2011) 'Soldiers’ families in the early Roman Empire', in B. Rawson, ed., Family and household in ancient Greece and Rome: a companion, 161–182. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell

1894:

was as high as 40 percent, divine aid was solicited for the life-threatening act of giving birth and the perils of caring for a baby. Invocations were directed at the goddesses

2296:. The affair ends badly, and Catullus's declarations of love turn to attacks on her sexual appetites—rhetoric that accords with the other hostile source on Clodia's behavior, 941:

was ideal, there was no general disapproval of remarriage; on the contrary, marriage was considered the right and desirable condition of adult life for both men and women.

5845: 1093:("Milk Column"), where poor parents could obtain milk for their infants as charity from wet nurses and more affluent parents could hire a wet nurse. Licinia, the wife of 792: 1527:, acting several times as regent and consistently as a faithful advisor. Several women of the Imperial family, such as Livia's great-granddaughter and Caligula's sister 421: 4927:

Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Heidelberg, July 5–7, 2007)

4728:

Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Heidelberg, July 5–7, 2007)

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option. Women also joined in funding public works, as is frequently documented by inscriptions during the Imperial period. The "lawless" Politta, who appears in the

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Women in ancient Rome took great care in their appearance, though extravagance was frowned upon. They wore cosmetics and made different concoctions for their skin.

131:

document the names of a wide range of women throughout the Roman Empire, but often tell little else about them. Some vivid snapshots of daily life are preserved in

736:, if a woman was absent for three consecutive nights at least once a year, she would avoid her husband establishing legal control over her. This differed from the 2107:

was a long white dress that was cinched at the waist and which fell to the wearer’s feet, secured by clasps at the shoulder. Wealthier women would decorate their

1097:(d. 149 BCE), is reported to have nursed not only her son, but sometimes the infants of her slaves, to encourage "brotherly affection" among them. By the time of 1485:

endangered her own life and relinquished her jewelry to send support to her husband in exile. Both survived the turbulence of the time to enjoy a long marriage.

1328:

created legislation to encourage the upper classes to engage in shipping. Women of the upper classes are documented as owning and running shipping corporations.

5996: 3098:

Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski, Richard J. A. Talbert, "A Brief History of The Romans" (Oxford University Press; 2 edition, 2013), p. 176.

1748:. The Vestals seem to have retained their religious and social distinctions well into the 4th century CE, until the Christian emperors dissolved the order. 667:

Roman couple in the ceremonial joining of hands; the bride's knotted belt symbolized that her husband was "belted and bound" to her. 4th century sarcophagus

2234:(a sort of strapless bra) even when otherwise nude and performing sex acts. Large breasts were mocked as humorous or a sign of old age. Young girls wore a 1120:(reigned 27 BCE–14 CE) passed a series of laws intended to increase it. These laws provided special honors for women who bore at least three children (the 2522:

slaves. A freed slave owed a period of service, the terms of which might be agreed upon as a precondition of freedom, to her former owner, who became her

1665:

and cult observances. Some rituals specifically required the presence of women, but their participation might be limited. As a rule women did not perform

810:

was a legal but relatively informal affair which mainly involved a wife leaving her husband’s house and taking back her dowry. According to the historian

1080:, most elite women avoided breast-feeding their infants themselves and thus hired wet-nurses. This practice was not uncommon as early as the 2nd century 2190: 1890:

Although less documented than public religion, private religious practices addressed aspects of life that were exclusive to women. At a time when the

5401:

Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 267. Clitoridectomy is described in some detail by the Byzantine physicians and medical writers

4804: 1738:

society, these priestesses were the only women not required to be under the legal guardianship of a man, instead answering directly and only to the

3294: 1235:, sometimes for years at a time, the maintenance of the family's property and business decisions were often left to the wives. For instance, while 1776: 1763:

prohibitions. The flaminica was a perhaps exceptional case of a woman performing animal sacrifice; she offered a ram to Jupiter on each of the

1543: 1794:, "queen of the sacred rites", wore distinctive ceremonial dress and performed animal sacrifice, offering a sow or female lamb to Juno on the 5883: 587:. An edict was consequently enacted that prohibited women from bringing claims on behalf of others, on the grounds that it jeopardized their 1370:) would be quite proud of her occupation. Women could be scribes and secretaries, including "girls trained for beautiful writing", that is, 304:

Children of both genders learned to behave socially by attending dinner parties or other, less elitist events. Both genders participated in

6425: 1501:, came to a less fortunate but (in the eyes of her time) heroic end: she killed herself as the Republic collapsed, just as her father did. 539: 446: 6467: 6455: 3216:," notes Rawson, "they may well have found the constant awareness of his powers and position a great strain" ("The Roman Family," p. 15). 2726:. ("children born of two Roman citizens") indicates that a Roman woman was regarded as having citizen status, in specific contrast to a 2530:

was one of the fundamental social structures of ancient Rome, and failure to fulfill one's obligations brought disapproval and censure.

1816:, "king of the sacred rites", an archaic priesthood regarded in the earliest period as more prestigious than even the Pontifex Maximus. 6514: 4773: 439: 5392:(Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), p. 156. Nude statues of men that were intended to be beautiful or dignified had a small penis. 906:

ruled that it was permissible as long as the child's father was determined first. Livia's previous husband even attended the wedding.

2619: 1913: 179:, as his speeches demonstrate through disparagement the various ways Roman women could enjoy a free-spirited sexual and social life. 6430: 1366:, people who had recourse to few legal protections even if they were free. Inscriptions indicate that a woman who was a wet nurse ( 3832: 521:

and Empire, as early as the 5th century BC, Roman women could own land, write their own wills, and appear in court. The historian

7802: 6440: 2767:

Les écoles médicales à Rome: Actes du 2 Colloque international sur les textes médicaux latins antiques, Lausanne, septembre 1986

1690: 385: 7747: 6435: 6169: 1231:). Since the most ambitious aristocratic men were frequently away from home on military campaign or administrative duty in the 923: 627:

could marry as she pleased. A woman also had certain avenues of recourse if she wished to replace an obstructive tutor. Under

7717: 6542: 6069: 5795: 5779: 5758: 5742: 5695: 5636: 5046: 2225: 1324:

suggested that in order to gain respectability a merchant should buy land. Attitudes changed during the Empire, however, and

894: 236: 4752:

Fasti sacerdotum: A Prosopography of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Religious Officials in the City of Rome, 300 BCE to CE 499

7807: 7682: 6835: 2284:

addresses a number of poems to "Lesbia", a married woman with whom he has an affair, usually identified as a fictionalized

986:

Couples usually resorted to concubinage when inequality of social rank was an obstacle to marriage. For instance, a man of

4084: 3967: 2189:. Evidence of a lessening on luxury restrictions can also be found; one of the Letters of Pliny is addressed to the woman 1127:. Women who were unmarried, divorced, widowed, or barren were prohibited from inheriting property unless named in a will. 6388: 1925: 1362: 549: 6059: 5724: 5674: 5655: 2861:, and p. 48 on Diana. Rome lacked the elaborate puberty rites for girls that were practiced in ancient Greece (p. 145). 2273: 2238:

secured tightly in the belief that it would inhibit the growth of breasts, and a regimen of massaging the breasts with

2186: 1441:

could not be cheated of the real and secret power that comes from influence. They count for more than does the average

1025:

by a husband to his wife, However, as with any other crime, laws against domestic abuse do not necessarily prevent it.

577:

who presided over the court, even though she had male advocates who could have spoken for her, that she was accused of

7727: 6487: 6054: 6049: 6025: 5876: 5600: 5571: 5466:

The Economy of Prostitution in the Roman World: A Study of social History and the Brothel By Thomas A. McGinn. pg. 52

2431:, was considered a symptom of excessive sexuality. Although Hellenistic and Roman medical and other writers refer to 1036:

Domestic abuse enters the historical record mainly when it involves the egregious excesses of the elite. The Emperor

3021: 1759:; his wife, the Flaminica Dialis, had her own unique priestly attire, and like her husband was placed under obscure 7742: 6415: 6064: 5991: 5252: 2765:(Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 278; Ann Ellis Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology at Rome," in 1570: 814:, divorces were taking place by 604 BCE or earlier, and the law code as embodied in the mid-5th century BCE by the 171:, for instance, reveal informally how the self-proclaimed great man interacted on the domestic front with his wife 2220:

shows idealized women as substantial and fleshy, with a full abdomen and breasts that are rounded, not pendulous.

748: 474: 411: 6008: 5941: 5858:

The Women of the Caesars. The Century Co.; New York, 1911. This edition was created by Jone Johnson Lewis, 2003."

2347:

regarding women's bodies and their perceived weaknesses were inadequate for addressing the needs of women in the

1508:

to sole power in the last decades of the 1st century BCE diminished the power of political officeholders and the

517:

Although the rights and status of women in the earliest period of Roman history were more restricted than in the

470: 2901:

Lauren, Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity" (Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 3–4.

1227:) was also the center of the family's social identity, with ancestral portraits displayed in the entrance hall ( 1105: 518: 7828: 6762: 6687: 6445: 5367: 4362:, edited by Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982, 3rd ed. 2005), p. 104. 2548:; she was also his concubine. He is said to have lived with her faithfully, but she was not considered a wife. 2471: 1921: 1803: 1498: 860: 859:, a man of distinction, was the first to divorce his wife" on grounds of infertility. This was most likely the 645:

said he saw no reason for it. The Christianization of the Empire, beginning with the conversion of the Emperor

160: 2263: 123:, elite women and their politically significant deeds eclipse those of lower status in the historical record. 7258: 4590:. Public religion, like society and politics in general, reflected the hierarchy of the household, since the 2649: 2381:

for female physiology; men, by contrast, were advised to exercise moderation in their sexual behavior, since

2213: 1988: 1539: 7098: 6702: 6154: 5869: 2557: 2526:. The patron had obligations in return, such as paying for said services and helping in legal matters. The 2221: 1941: 1837: 1773:. The couple were not permitted to divorce, and if the flaminica died the flamen had to resign his office. 1551: 1353: 1867: 7797: 7722: 7481: 6537: 6420: 5966: 5753:(1a ed.). Sevilla Zaragoza: Editorial Universidad de Sevilla Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza. 2411:

In the Roman era, medical writers saw a place for exercise in the lives of women in sickness and health.

1534:

Women also participated in efforts to overthrow emperors, predominantly for personal gain. Shortly after

1168: 966: 176: 5388:, among others. It was laughter-provoking, grotesque, or used for magical purposes; see David Fredrick, 2420:

writers include information about sterility in men, rather than assuming some defect in the woman only.

1512:, but did nothing to diminish and arguably increased the opportunities for women, as well as slaves and 1147:. Aurelia's political clout was essential in preventing the execution of her 18-year-old son during the 7757: 7421: 7313: 7083: 6855: 6677: 6585: 6450: 6393: 3707: 2778:

Unless otherwise noted, this introductory overview is based on Beryl Rawson, "Finding Roman Women," in

2527: 2336: 2079: 1240: 1060: 852: 737: 5855: 5208:(Routledge, 2001, 2005), p. 167. Pliny also notes that an application of hemlock was used to suppress 4388:

Catharine Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome," in

4372: 2216:

and wide hips were the ideal body type for women considered alluring by Roman men. Roman art from the

878: 7838: 7833: 7777: 6870: 6825: 6752: 6672: 6620: 6610: 6562: 5909: 4273: 2805: 2639: 2629: 2523: 2285: 2258: 2065: 1214: 840: 156: 3481:

Women and the Law in the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook on Marriage, Divorce and Law in the Roman Empire

7843: 7378: 7288: 6797: 6777: 6772: 6757: 6710: 6650: 6605: 6407: 2644: 2069: 1958:

carried by slaves. Women gathered on a daily basis to meet with friends, attend religious rites at

1681: 1677: 1482: 1360:—not all of equal respectability. Prostitutes and performers such as actresses were stigmatized as 1302: 1101:(d. 117 CE), breastfeeding by elite matrons was idealized as a practice of the virtuous old days. 1044:

murdered after subjecting her to torture and imprisonment. Nero then married his pregnant mistress

993: 851:

Elsewhere, however, it is claimed that the first divorce took place only in 230 BCE, at which time

721: 658: 497: 257: 191: 183: 5298:

Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 259–260; Marilyn B. Skinner, introduction to

3631:(Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 140–141; J.P. Sullivan, "Martial's Sexual Attitudes", 7787: 7767: 7707: 7697: 7687: 7093: 6782: 6682: 6662: 6577: 6567: 6272: 6212: 6192: 5904: 5835: 5416: 4566: 3146: 2634: 2509: 2448: 2377: 1884: 1883:

for a woman who held the highest priesthood of the Magna Mater's temple near the current site of

1409: 1349: 1109: 919: 4068:

Lawrence Richardson, "A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome," (JHU Press, 1992), p. 94.

7792: 7782: 7732: 7712: 7526: 7501: 7466: 7348: 7073: 6720: 6482: 6013: 4768: 3535: 2492: 2452: 461:

From the start of the Roman Republic, there was a high emphasis placed on a woman's virginity.

320: 89: 5365:

78 on the vitiating effects of uncontrolled sexual activity and releasing too much semen, and

3870: 2719: 1855: 1765: 7762: 7692: 7516: 7268: 7068: 7063: 6860: 6692: 6655: 6640: 6615: 6595: 6497: 4822:

1.1.4, says their golden images stood in the forum, "six male and the same number of female."

2185:, successfully protested against laws designed to tax Roman women, by use of the argument of 2134: 2046: 1977: 1891: 1821: 1600: 1547: 1528: 1284: 1143:, whose father died when he was only a young teen, had a close relationship with his mother, 950: 646: 584: 402:

might be arranged for political reasons when the couple were too young to marry. In general,

97: 5561: 5036: 2125:, and instead wore tunics. Prostitutes and those caught committing adultery put on the male 971: 7772: 7737: 7426: 7293: 7193: 7118: 6983: 6946: 6322: 5986: 5788:

Bonae matronae e bona matronarum: donne e capacità patrimoniale tra Repubblica e Principato

5540: 4843:(University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), pp. 73, 87, 131, 150. 2483:

A young woman sits while a servant fixes her hair with the help of a cupid, who holds up a

1751:

A few priesthoods were held jointly by married couples. Marriage was a requirement for the

1650: 934: 818:

provides for divorce. Divorce was socially acceptable if carried out within social norms (

686:, though to a lesser degree than their children. In the earliest periods of Roman history, 579: 273: 57: 7416: 5376: 8: 7702: 7551: 7353: 7223: 7173: 6492: 6089: 2614: 2606: 2323:

for offering instruction in how to pursue, keep, and get over a lover. Satirists such as

2022: 1756: 1574: 1520: 1268:"One of the most curious characteristics of that age," observed French classical scholar 1122: 903: 633: 5821: 4754:(Oxford University Press, 2008, originally published in German 2005), pp. 223, 783, 840. 3470:(University of Georgia Press, 1995), p. 13; Thomas, "The Division of the Sexes," p. 135. 1217:, and visiting dignitaries from abroad, the husband held his morning business meetings ( 1005: 7752: 7476: 7283: 7138: 7078: 6998: 6941: 6805: 6041: 6020: 5329: 4039: 3800: 3682:

24.1.3.1. If the donor died first, however, the gift to the surviving spouse was valid.

3288: 3212:"If adults sons or daughters and their children had lived in the same household as the 2728: 2711: 2435:

as primarily an "Egyptian" custom, gynecological manuals under the Christian Empire in

2412: 2360: 2343: 2182: 2176:

flooded Rome with wealth and in 195 BCE the Lex Oppia was reviewed. The ruling consul,

1829: 1699: 1634: 1392: 954: 7391: 5402: 4210: 2229: 2121:, which was held by a clasp at the shoulder. Young women were not permitted to wear a 263: 7386: 7238: 6993: 6953: 6931: 6139: 5791: 5775: 5754: 5738: 5720: 5691: 5670: 5651: 5632: 5596: 5567: 5042: 4836: 3730:

4.3.1) places the divorce in 227 BCE, but fudges the date and his sources elsewhere.

2882: 2564: 2372: 2205: 2201: 2014: 1899: 1715: 1625: 1607:, had listened to Senate proceedings, while concealed behind a curtain, according to 1578: 1556: 1478: 1383: 1316:

Unlike landholding, industry was not considered an honorable profession for those of

1296: 1132: 856: 649:

in the early 4th century, eventually had consequences for the legal status of women.

338: 244: 240: 77: 45: 2745:(Oxford University Press: American Philological Association, 2004), pp. 31–32, 457, 1980:

observed that women of the highest social classes could be seen naked at the baths.

1872: 1581:

for sacrificing her fortune in order to stand by her innocent husband against Nero.

930:, the last opponent to the republican oligarchs and to Rome's future first emperor. 56:. Because of their limited public role, women are named less frequently than men by 7451: 7411: 7343: 7278: 7203: 7198: 6970: 6893: 6840: 6635: 6630: 6519: 6378: 6327: 6287: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6237: 6159: 6106: 6099: 6084: 6079: 6003: 5931: 5767: 5077: 4880: 3817:

The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome

3351: 3033: 2165: 1955: 1903: 1895: 1841: 1781: 1760: 1739: 1666: 1586: 1563:

to overthrow her husband in the hope of installing herself and her lover in power.

1490: 1435:

notes, with reference to politics in the Late Republic, that "the daughters of the

1090: 942: 811: 769:, women were expected to obey their husbands in almost all aspects of their lives. 604:, or her own person, and could own property and dispose of it as she saw fit. If a 522: 329: 325: 314: 216: 132: 120: 110: 53: 5830: 5816: 1064:

Mother nursing an infant in the presence of the father, detail from a young boy's

18: 7546: 7358: 7338: 7298: 7233: 7183: 7178: 7053: 7003: 6911: 6745: 6725: 6645: 6094: 5919: 5685: 5609: 5580: 5189: 4747: 4650:

Lesley E. Lundeen, "In Search of the Etruscan Priestess: A Re-Examination of the

4427: 4265: 3694:, "From Ceremonial to Sexualities: A Survey of Scholarship on Roman Marriage" in 3036:, "Women and Slaves in Greco-Roman Culture" (Routledge; New edition 2001), p. 86. 2873:

Beryl Rawson, "The Roman Family in Italy" (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 21.

2758: 2352: 2320: 2293: 2177: 2157: 2113: 2007: 1859:

Mosaic depicting masked actors in a play: two women consult a "witch" or private

1790: 1662: 1654: 1473: 1457: 1375: 1269: 1041: 890: 554: 362: 305: 253: 69: 5629:

Il mundus muliebris a Pompei: specchi e oggetti da toletta in contesti domestici

5116:

Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art 100 B.C.–A.D. 250

2439:

propose that hypersexuality could be treated by surgery or repeated childbirth.

2359:

of women began to be seen as less alien to that of men. In the older tradition,

2239: 7601: 7243: 6978: 6926: 6898: 6845: 6830: 6810: 6625: 6600: 6557: 6547: 6373: 6347: 6277: 6262: 6227: 6187: 5948: 5856:"An etext version of: Ferrero, Guglielmo. "Women and Marriage in Ancient Rome." 5412: 5260: 5201: 3815:, "Marriage and Sexuality in Republican Rome: A Roman Conjugal Love Story," in 3812: 3624: 3591: 2681: 2436: 2432: 2382: 1845: 1517: 1486: 1421: 1232: 1112:, who had at least three sisters and two brothers, was considered unusual. The 1094: 1045: 1026: 1022: 946: 687: 675: 642: 531: 355: 73: 65: 3629:

Pandora's Daughters: The Role and Status of Women in Greek and Roman Antiquity

1836:

were presented as six gender-balanced pairs, and Roman religion departed from

1116:

among the aristocracy declined to such an extent that the first Roman emperor

983:

contrast to marriage, which maintained a more defined separation of property.

7822: 7133: 7103: 7018: 6552: 6529: 6342: 6197: 6182: 6129: 5936: 5552: 4977:

Livius, Titus, A History of Rome, (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub, 2006), 182.

4832: 4351: 3723: 3691: 2625:

List of archaeologically attested women from the ancient Mediterranean region

2003: 1996:

For entertainment women could attend debates at the Forum, the public games (

1972: 1833: 1752: 1685: 1494: 1428: 1417: 1413: 1236: 1144: 1140: 829: 815: 777: 740:

and sequestration, which did not allow wives to walk the streets unescorted.

466: 309: 232: 5709:

Les vies de 12 femmes d’empereur romain - Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés

4311:

The Gracchi Marius and Sulla, A.H. Beesley, pg. 21 on the first Serville War

2228:

have fleshy bodies and wide hips, and often have their breasts covered by a

438:

disapproved—rightly, as it turned out—of her choice to marry the unreliable

7611: 7471: 6916: 6865: 6820: 6815: 6667: 6477: 6363: 6307: 6302: 6074: 5958: 5892: 5717:

Women in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook (Bloomsbury Sources in Ancient History)

5236:

Naked Truths: Women, Sexuality, and Gender in Classical Art and Archaeology

3878:. Or some scholars see in this more of an arrangement than marriage proper. 3089:

Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", pp. 11, 45–46.

3018: 2823:

For an extensive modern consideration of the Vestals, see Ariadne Staples,

2462: 2311: 1959: 1812: 1560: 1509: 1442: 1337: 1317: 1198:

A woman fixing her hair in the mirror, fresco from the Villa of Arianna at

1148: 987: 845: 781: 704: 566: 220: 136: 101: 23: 5684:

Dirven, Lucinda; Icks, Martijn; Remijsen, Sofie, eds. (13 February 2023).

5407: 4925:

2.9.21; Emily A. Hemelrijk, "Women and Sacrifice in the Roman Empire," in

3311:

Boatwright, Mary; Gargola, Daniel; Lenski, Noel; Talbert, Richard (2005).

1637:

depicts six women amongst the soldiers at a military religious sacrifice.

613: 595:, including dictating legal strategy to their advocate behind the scenes. 284:

imply that boys and girls were educated either together or similarly, and

7406: 7028: 6850: 6740: 6134: 5127: 4443: 4333:

Abbott, Society and Politics in Ancient Rome: Essays and Sketches, pg. 98

4139:

A History of Women in the West from Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints

2922:

Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", pp. 106–107.

2519: 2405: 2348: 1645: 1432: 1371: 1333: 1065: 927: 820: 756: 426: 403: 398:

elite, 14 was the age of transition from childhood to adolescence, but a

298: 202: 182:

The one major public role reserved solely for women was in the sphere of

105: 88:, who commanded an army and issued coins bearing her image; women of the 4686:

A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War

215:, girls are shown playing many of the same games as boys, such as ball, 7631: 7571: 7536: 7328: 7263: 7253: 7148: 7033: 6921: 6504: 6472: 6217: 6144: 5976: 5971: 5285:

Ann Ellis Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology at Rome," in

4673:

From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion

3045:

Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", pp. 15–16.

2825:

From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion

2810: 2689: 2585: 2417: 2401: 2368: 2356: 2302: 2243: 2034: 2026: 1967: 1860: 1744: 1722:, a high priestess, female expert or teacher in religious matters; and 1629: 1591: 1524: 1453: 1404: 1113: 867: 592: 228: 152: 5861: 5034: 4270:

Cicero and his friends: a study of Roman Society in the time of Caesar

2688:, for instance, requires that both spouses be citizens; like men from 2423:

Hypersexuality was to be avoided by women as well as men. An enlarged

2351:

and Roman eras, when women led active lives and more often engaged in

2267:

Romantic scene from a mosaic (Villa at Centocelle, Rome, 20 BCE–20 CE)

2097:

Matrons usually wore two simple tunics for undergarments covered by a

1287:. Inscriptions record her generosity in funding the renovation of the 663: 7661: 7656: 7616: 7541: 7511: 7491: 7368: 7308: 7218: 7168: 7163: 7088: 7048: 6936: 6906: 6715: 6590: 6383: 6267: 6242: 6121: 5381: 5303: 5209: 5197: 4731: 4710: 3358:(Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 74–75; Michael C. Alexander, 2545: 2364: 2289: 2169: 1449: 1446: 1345: 1210: 915: 699: 695: 619:

As in the case of minors, an emancipated woman had a legal guardian (

609: 600: 543: 462: 399: 293: 289: 212: 164: 124: 1852:

along with Jupiter. This triad "formed the core of Roman religion."

7621: 7606: 7596: 7581: 7496: 7486: 7456: 7446: 7441: 7431: 7333: 7248: 7128: 7113: 7043: 7023: 7013: 7008: 6988: 6787: 6368: 6332: 6222: 6149: 5981: 5772:

Crispina and her sisters: women and authority in early Christianity

5559: 4077: 3960: 3010: 2953:

Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", p. 17.

2931:

Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", p. 18.

2913:

Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", p. 16.

2858: 2703: 2424: 2281: 2217: 2173: 2146: 2030: 2018: 1670: 1535: 1513: 1505: 1325: 1248: 1117: 1049: 1030: 937: 882: 834: 628: 535: 172: 144: 61: 38: 5593:

Fathers and daughters in Roman society: women and the elite family

4726:

Emily A. Hemelrijk, "Women and Sacrifice in the Roman Empire," in

3163:

Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society: Women and the Elite Family

3001:

Caldwell, "Roman Girlhood and the Fashioning of Femininity", p. 2.

2887:

Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society: Women and the Elite Family

2388: 1992:

An all-women dinner party depicted on a wall painting from Pompeii

1676:

Women priests played a prominent and crucial role in the official

975:

Roman fresco with a banquet scene from the Casa dei Casti Amanti,

848:

of 307 BCE thus expelled him from the Senate for moral turpitude.

7641: 7636: 7626: 7591: 7586: 7576: 7521: 7506: 7323: 7318: 7303: 7273: 7228: 7208: 7188: 7143: 6875: 6730: 6509: 6317: 6312: 6202: 5751:

Powerful matrons: New political actors in the late Roman republic

5385: 5372: 5361: 5359:

Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 267, citing

5160: 4104: 4022: 2854: 2694: 2496: 2428: 2393: 2324: 2130: 2091: 2087: 1981: 1963: 1908: 1849: 1795: 1608: 1566: 1468: 1437: 1357: 1279: 1199: 1190: 1136: 1098: 1085: 976: 886: 807: 800: 574: 558: 505: 281: 187: 128: 81: 31: 5306:

or even pregnancy, did not constitute its entire raison d'être."

3874:, pointing to the fictionalized and possibly satiric account by 2152: 1946: 1726:, a female assistant, particularly one in service to a deity. A 7651: 7531: 7461: 7401: 7396: 7363: 7123: 7108: 7058: 7038: 6460: 6337: 6232: 5420: 2541: 2505: 2488: 2484: 2297: 1932:, on behalf of the Roman people, that is, for the public good. 1876: 1464: 1321: 1288: 1010: 911: 825: 796: 435: 249: 168: 140: 85: 27: 5811: 5324:

Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 260. The

5315:

Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," pp. 259–260.

5132:

The Garden of Priapus: Sexuality and Aggression in Roman Humor

4467:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University. pp. 8, 10. 4450:(University of California Press, 1964, reprinted 2002), p. 25 3310: 2722:(on male citizenship as it relates to marrying citizen women) 2669:

Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars

2029:

on his campaigns in northern Germania, and the future emperor

480: 7436: 7158: 6885: 6177: 4865:

M. Golden, "Did the Ancients Care When Their Children Died?"

4835:, composed of three male gods, and is thought to result from 4815: 4360:

Women's Life in Greece and Rome: A Source Book in Translation

3875: 3598:

marriage as something that used to happen. Frier and McGinn,

3455:

A History of Women from Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints

2804:

In reference to his character assassination of the notorious

2142: 2099: 2083: 2050: 2013:

Roman generals would sometimes take their wives with them on

1950:

Mosaic showing Roman women in various recreational activities

1825: 1684:

of male priests were far more numerous, the six women of the

1388: 1308: 1306:

Women and a man working alongside one another at a dye shop (

1257: 1223: 1152: 1104:

Large families were not the norm among the elite even by the

1014: 863:

who was consul in 234 and 228 BCE. The evidence is confused.

752: 729: 570: 93: 1209:

sociopolitically important responsibilities of entertaining

866:

During the classical period of Roman law (late Republic and

267:

Bronze statuette of the 1st century depicting a girl reading

7646: 7213: 7153: 6735: 6111: 5849: 4377:

The Usborne Internet-Linked Encyclopedia of The Roman World

3978:

Garrett G. Fagan, "Violence in Roman Social Relations," in

2316: 2138: 2126: 2075: 1998: 1770: 1604: 1531:, gained political influence as well as public prominence. 1516:, to exercise influence behind the scenes. Augustus' wife, 1467:

reports the heroism of wives who saved their husbands. An

1244: 1037: 678:, a bride passed from her father's control into the "hand" 285: 277: 224: 155:

and boudoirs, at sporting and theatrical events, shopping,

148: 5101:

Kelly Olson, "The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl," in

5035:

Christopher A. Faraone; Laura K. McClure (14 March 2008).

4342:

Women's life in Greece & Rome, Lefkowitz+Fant, pg. 171

2869: 2867: 2791:

Kelly Olson, "The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl," in

2575:

when freed. Sometimes sellers of female slaves attached a

2149:, rings and sometimes sewn onto their shoes and clothing. 922:, who was murdered after a long feud with Cicero; then to 366:, the power wielded by their father as head of household ( 6207: 5350:

Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 265.

5341:

Hanson, "The Restructuring of Female Physiology," p. 264.

5234:

Larissa Bonfante, "Nursing Mothers in Classical Art," in

3453:

Yan Thomas, "The Division of the Sexes in Roman Law," in

3268:. New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 8, 10, 15, 105. 1247:, regarded as Rome's greatest living poet, was exiled by 1081: 1077: 1069: 682:

of her husband. She then became subject to her husband's

638: 5427:

500 CE); see Holt N. Parker, "The Teratogenic Grid," in

5180:

Olson, "The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl," p. 143.

4201:(Oxford University Press, 1991, reprinted 2002), p. 420. 4087:; Christopher Michael McDonough, "Carna, Procra and the 2540:

The status of freedwomen, like freedmen, varied widely.

1040:

was alleged to have had his first wife (and stepsister)

407:

showing that the proposed husband was of bad character.

117:

250–330 AD), a driving force in promoting Christianity.

4492:

Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192

4322:

Ancient Roman Life as Illustrated by Latin Inscriptions

3542:(Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 101, 110, 211 . 2864: 945:, who presented himself as a paragon modeled after his 5549:

The First Ladies of Rome: the Women behind the Caesars

5546: 5204:

physician in the time of Augustus; Matthew W. Dickie,

4955:(University of Michigan Press, 1999, 2002), pp. 26–27. 4777:(hierarchy of priests), 198 in the edition of Lindsay. 3773:(Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 258–259, 500–502 2276:

declared their eagerness to submit to "love slavery" (

4688:(University of California Press, 2005, 2006), p. 141. 4093:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

3851:

citing Humbert (1971), pp. 1–11. See also Treggiari,

3696:

A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds

1523:(58 BCE – CE 29), was the most powerful woman in the 1445:..." Livy's account of the framing and repeal of the 252:'s lifelong friend Atticus, who married his daughter 5118:(University of California Press, 1998, 2001), p. 34. 4658:(Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 46; Schultz, 4594:

was the building block of society. See John Scheid,

4481:(University of California Press, 1983), pp. 34, 103. 4124:(University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 33ff. 3555:

2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2011, p.32

3553:“The Family” Gender in History: Global Perspectives, 2596: 2404:

was fatal became by Roman times a specific issue of

1706:, often in relation to a deity or temple, such as a 1387:(apartment buildings), and those housing the poorer 1378:

gives a list of female artists and their paintings.

1243:

was responsible for taking care of his assets. When

1239:

was away from Rome throughout the 50s BCE, his wife

425:

Dressing of a priestess or bride, Roman fresco from

5537:

The Herculaneum Women: History, Context, Identities

5512:

Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome

5490:

Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome

5477:

Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome

5134:(Oxford University Press, 1983, 1992), pp. 68, 110. 5028: 4573:(Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 297. 4524:, Historia Augusta, 4.3, 12.3 and Historia Augusta, 3635:

123 (1979), p. 296, specifically on sexual freedom.

2392:A female artist paints a statue of the phallic god 1914:

divine attendants devoted to birth and childrearing

751:, but became less frequent thereafter. The bride's 5687:The Public Lives of Ancient Women (500 BCE-650 CE) 5683: 5590: 5444:(Cornell University Press, 1967, 1984), pp. 48–50. 4624:Phyllis Culham, "Women in the Roman Republic," in 4405:(University of North Carolina Press, 2006), p. 54. 4284:A Casebook on Roman Family Law Frier+McGinn pg 461 3845:The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity 3788:The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity 3540:The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity 1688:were Rome's only "full-time professional clergy". 1427:Women had limited engagement with politics in the 370:). A Roman household was considered a collective ( 243:, the goddess most concerned with girlhood, or to 3195: 3193: 2909: 2907: 2249: 500:how to open his case, and how to urge his points. 7820: 4831:The Capitoline Triad replaced the Indo-European 4788:Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic 4660:Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic 4584:Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic 4403:Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic 3939:J.A. Crook Law and Life of Rome 90 B.C.-212 A.D. 3803:, a pregnancy was counted as lasting ten months. 3315:. New York: Oxford University. pp. 176–177. 2992:(Cornell University Press, 1986), pp. 30, 40–41. 2327:complain about the dissolute behavior of women. 2090:to whiten their faces, or rouge made of lead or 732:married by the latter two types. In marriage by 100:(15–59 AD), who contributed to the formation of 5595:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 5038:Prostitutes and Courtesans in the Ancient World 4856:(Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), p. 283. 4217:(University of California Press, 1956), p. 151. 3847:(Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 4, 48, 3283:. New York, New York: Rutledge. pp. 30–31. 2763:The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Historians 1463:During the civil wars that ended the Republic, 5812:Online Companion to the Worlds of Roman Women. 5648:Imperial Women of Rome: Power, Gender, Context 5514:, Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 171, 310. 5251:(Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 87ff.; 4122:The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher 3648:(Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 33–34. 3190: 2904: 2544:was a freedwoman and secretary to the Emperor 2193:praising the luxuries she keeps in her villa. 2168:, economic crisis provoked the passing of the 1483:civil war following the death of Julius Caesar 1344:Some typical occupations for a woman would be 776:marriage was largely abandoned by the time of 344: 5877: 4626:The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic 4392:(Princeton University Press, 1997), pp. 66ff. 4199:from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian 4158:(Oxford University Press, 1999, 2004), p. 53. 3771:from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian 3360:Trials in the Late Roman Republic, 149–50 BCE 2840:(Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 129–130. 2718:(Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 211 and 534:, is identified by her origin in the town of 26:(c. 136 AD) was a grand-niece of the emperor 5560:Bruce W. Frier, Thomas A. J. McGinn (2004). 5526: 5206:Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World 5105:(University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 143. 5103:Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture 5092:Pliny the Younger, Letters, Book 1 letter IV 3819:(University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 276. 3743:(University of Georgia Press, 1995), p. 173. 3509:Thomas, "The Division of the Sexes," p. 133. 3293:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3278: 3122:The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives 2990:The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives 2795:(University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 139. 2793:Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture 2080:poem about the correct application of makeup 1954:Wealthy women traveled around the city in a 1769:, the eight-day Roman cycle comparable to a 414:, the bride became subject to her husband's 288:takes it for granted that the daughter of a 5664: 5390:The Roman Gaze: Vision, Power, and the Body 4628:(Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 143. 4598:(Indiana University Press, 2003), p. 129ff. 4479:Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy 2319:goes a step further, adopting the genre of 569:, the wife of a senator during the time of 481:Augustus's campaign on women and the family 473:, attempted to have private relations with 121:As is the case with male members of society 5884: 5870: 5838:Ancient Roman Women: A Look at their Lives 5714: 5645: 5431:(Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 59. 4854:Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City 4641:(University of Texas Press, 1996), p. 104. 4494:(Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 18. 3538:55 (edition of Lindsay); Karen K. Hersch, 3281:Growing up and Growing old in Ancient Rome 2330: 2208:, goddess of beauty and love (2nd century) 442:, but found himself unable to prevent it. 197: 5259:(Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 725; 4878: 4059:(Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 242. 3457:(Harvard University Press, 1991), p. 134. 2620:List of Roman birth and childhood deities 2567:, women who engaged in acts that brought 2017:, though the practice was discouraged, . 1618: 1052:may have killed his wife and his sister. 553:Roman fresco of a maiden reading a text, 163:, worrying about pregnancy—all, however, 151:, which offer glimpses of women in Roman 5748: 5669:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 5249:Nature Embodied: Gesture in Ancient Rome 5041:. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 6–. 4490:Richard Saller, "Status and patronage", 3982:(Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 487. 3279:Harlow, Mary, and Ray, Laurence (2002). 3165:(Princeton University Press, 1984), 142. 3124:(Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 18. 2889:(Princeton University Press, 1984), 142. 2584:during one of Nero's feasts the prefect 2387: 2262: 2200: 2151: 2111:further. When going out a woman wore a 2045: 1987: 1945: 1854: 1775: 1644: 1403: 1301: 1059: 1004: 970: 877: 791: 662: 548: 420: 384: 360:Both daughters and sons were subject to 262: 201: 143:, and poetry, particularly the poems of 17: 5891: 5785: 5774:. Minneapolis (Minn.): Fortress press. 5737:Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. 5492:, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 293 5479:, Oxford University Press. 1998, p. 56. 4293:Law and Life of Rome, J.A. Crook pg.172 3980:The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations 3187:(Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 20. 3183:Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A.J. McGinn, 2741:Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A.J. McGinn, 2041: 1189:Wall painting from the Vila San Marco, 389:Bust of a Roman girl, early 3rd century 7821: 5003: 5001: 4465:Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society 4462: 4371:"Women and Marriage in Ancient Rome," 3263: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3253: 2761:, "Women in Roman Historiography," in 708:, symbolized by the sharing of bread ( 456: 5865: 5650:. New York: Oxford University Press. 5442:Law and Life of Rome 90 B.C.-A.D. 212 5411:mid-5th century/mid-6th century) and 5289:(Université de Nantes, 1991), p. 259. 4416:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 3306: 3304: 3120:Beryl Rawson, "The Roman Family," in 3078:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 3065:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 2988:Beryl Rawson, "The Roman Family," in 2964:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 2942:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 2897: 2895: 2851:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 2838:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 2769:(Université de Nantes, 1991), p. 256. 2698:, women (at least those eligible for 2129:. Wealthy women wore jewels such as 1702:. Religious titles for women include 1698:, was the Latin word for a priest of 895:Naples National Archaeological Museum 30:and became the wife of his successor 5848:: an article by Joy Connolly in the 5626: 4953:Bathing in Public in the Roman World 4699:From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins, 4456: 3151:Law and Life of Rome 90B.C.-212 A.D. 2164:In the aftermath of Roman defeat at 1935: 738:Athenian custom of arranged marriage 598:An emancipated woman legally became 573:, appeared so frequently before the 489: 349: 292:would be in school. Alternatively, 5238:(Routledge, 1997, 2000), pp. 174ff. 4998: 4881:"Ceres: The Roman Goddess of Grain" 4730:(Brill, 2009), pp. 258–259, citing 4302:Christians and Pagans, Fox, Pg. 464 3250: 2487:to offer a reflection, detail of a 2212:Based on Roman art and literature, 1840:in installing two goddesses in its 1017:in her arms, fresco, 1st century AD 13: 5842:Essay on the lives of Roman women. 5831:WomenintheAncientWorld.com (2005). 5817:WomenintheAncientWorld.com (2005). 5620: 5616:, University of Texas Press, 1996. 5276:Juvenal, Satire VI lines 6.286–313 4111:28, as noted by McDonough, p. 322. 4013:Rawson, "The Roman Family," p. 30. 3384:The name is vexed; it may also be 3327:Women and Politics in Ancient Rome 3301: 3266:Women and Politics in Ancient Rome 3247:Rawson, "The Roman Family," p. 18. 3174:Rawson, "The Roman Family", p. 21. 3054:Rawson, "The Roman Family," p. 40. 2892: 2187:no taxation without representation 1824:, as seen in divine pairs such as 1452:, passed during the crisis of the 1312:), on a wall painting from Pompeii 1029:said, according to his biographer 1021:Classical Roman law did not allow 14: 7855: 5824:Private Lives and Public Personae 5805: 5735:Turia: A Roman Woman's Civil War. 5719:. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. 5631:. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider. 5332:is central to Hanson's arguments. 4801:Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach 4596:An Introduction to Roman Religion 4528:, 49.6; translated by David Magie 3440:, chapter 3.3; Frier and McGinn, 2780:A Companion to the Roman Republic 2385:would cause disease and fatigue. 1879:. An epitaph preserves the title 1640: 1000: 702:, marriages were of three kinds: 5504: 5495: 5482: 5469: 5460: 5447: 5434: 5395: 5353: 5344: 5335: 5318: 5309: 5292: 5279: 5270: 5241: 5228: 5215: 5183: 5174: 5154: 5137: 5121: 5108: 5095: 5086: 5071: 5062: 5019: 5010: 4989: 4980: 4971: 4958: 4945: 4932: 4915: 4898: 4879:Greenberg, Mike (28 June 2021). 4872: 4859: 4846: 4825: 4809: 4793: 4780: 4765:A Critical History of Early Rome 4757: 4741: 4720: 4704: 4691: 4678: 4665: 4644: 4631: 4618: 4601: 4576: 4569:, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, 4560: 4550: 4540: 4531: 4515: 4506: 4497: 4484: 4471: 4437: 4421: 4408: 4395: 4382: 4365: 4345: 4336: 4327: 4314: 4305: 4296: 4287: 4278: 4259: 4246: 4233: 4226:Jo-Marie Claasen, "Tristia," in 4220: 4204: 4187: 4174: 4161: 4144: 4127: 4114: 3756:, part D, "The End of Marriage." 3698:(Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), p. 248. 3356:Latin Language and Latin Culture 2599: 2571:to them as slaves also suffered 2470: 2461: 2396:, fresco from Pompeii, 1st c. AD 1718:", an office never held by men; 1176: 1167: 5547:Freisenbruch, Annelise (2010). 5520: 5265:Women's Life in Greece and Rome 4272:1922 trans. Adnah David Jones. 4215:Ovid: A Poet between Two Worlds 4098: 4071: 4062: 4049: 4032: 4016: 4007: 3994: 3985: 3972: 3954: 3942: 3933: 3920: 3907: 3894: 3881: 3858: 3837: 3822: 3806: 3793: 3780: 3759: 3746: 3733: 3717: 3701: 3685: 3668: 3661:, pp. 36–36; Frier and McGinn, 3651: 3638: 3618: 3605: 3584: 3571: 3558: 3545: 3525: 3512: 3503: 3486: 3473: 3460: 3447: 3430: 3417: 3404: 3391: 3378: 3365: 3345: 3332: 3329:(Routledge, 1992, 1994), p. 50. 3319: 3272: 3241: 3228: 3219: 3206: 3177: 3168: 3155: 3140: 3127: 3114: 3101: 3092: 3083: 3070: 3057: 3048: 3039: 3026: 3004: 2995: 2982: 2969: 2956: 2947: 2934: 2925: 2916: 2876: 2843: 2671:(Routledge, 2007), pp. 124–140. 2551: 2341:The practices and views in the 1788:Like the Flaminica Dialis, the 527:On Memorable Deeds and Speeches 22:The educated and well-traveled 5846:"Wife-beating in Ancient Rome" 5585:Women in Roman Law and Society 5563:A casebook on Roman family law 4841:Roman and European Mythologies 4057:Women in Roman Law and Society 3949:A casebook on Roman Family Law 3566:A Casebook on Roman Family Law 3185:A Casebook on Roman Family Law 3135:A Casebook on Roman Family Law 3109:A Casebook on Roman Family Law 2830: 2817: 2798: 2785: 2772: 2752: 2743:A Casebook on Roman Family Law 2735: 2708:A Casebook on Roman Family Law 2674: 2661: 2025:often accompanied her husband 1456:, has the arch-traditionalist 1399: 1263: 960: 861:Spurius Carvilius Maximus Ruga 743:The form of marriage known as 674:In the earliest period of the 525:devotes a section of his work 52:), but could not vote or hold 1: 5167:1.100, 2.52, 14.66; Richlin, 3678:, pp. 49, 52, citing Ulpian, 3313:A Brief History of the Romans 2655: 2650:Women in the Etruscan society 2196: 2156:Exaggerated hairstyle of the 1784:of Minerva, Jupiter, and Juno 1481:for his wife, who during the 1158: 1055: 873: 631:, a woman who had gained the 186:: the priestly office of the 114: 6456:Frontiers and fortifications 5749:Rohr Vio, Francesca (2022). 5646:Boatwright, Mary T. (2021). 5384:was associated with the god 5082:Women in Classical Antiquity 4656:Religion in Republican Italy 4571:Religions of Rome: A History 4095:127 (1997), p. 322, note 29. 2558:Prostitution in ancient Rome 1942:Social class in ancient Rome 1084:, when the comic playwright 949:, allowed his pregnant wife 720:, "by mutual cohabitation". 7: 6515:Decorations and punishments 5715:MacLachlan, Bonnie (2013). 5711:, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2012. 5591:Hallett, Judith P. (1984). 5566:. Oxford University Press. 5287:Les écoles médicales à Rome 4803:(Brill, 2009), pp. 141–142 3951:, Frier and McGinn, pg. 95. 3579:A History of Women Volume 1 2667:Jasper Burns, "Sabina," in 2592: 2508:of a woman dancer from the 1661:Women were present at most 967:Concubinage in ancient Rome 652: 374:, a "body") over which the 345:Women in the family and law 167:. The published letters of 10: 7860: 7422:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 5997:historiography of the fall 5380:. The outsized phallus of 4675:(Routledge, 1998), p. 184. 4230:(Blackwell, 2009), p. 179. 3708:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3577:Duby, Perrot, and Pantel, 2782:(Blackwell, 2010), p. 325. 2555: 2528:patron-client relationship 2446: 2442: 2400:The Hippocratic view that 2337:Gynecology in ancient Rome 2334: 2288:, sister of the prominent 2256: 2063: 1939: 1628:, at the frontier fort of 964: 853:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 787: 656: 353: 206:Roman girls playing a game 7803:External wars and battles 7670: 7564: 7377: 6969: 6962: 6884: 6796: 6701: 6576: 6528: 6406: 6356: 6295: 6286: 6168: 6120: 6040: 5957: 5927: 5918: 5900: 5690:. Leiden; Boston: Brill. 4637:Barbette Stanley Spaeth, 4379:(Usborne, 2002), page 48. 4137:(New York, 1960), p. 32; 4091:on the Kalends of June," 3483:(Routledge, 2002), p. 24. 3338:Her name appears also as 2640:Women in Classical Athens 2630:Sexuality in ancient Rome 2371:were not only central to 2259:Sexuality in ancient Rome 2066:Cosmetics in ancient Rome 953:to divorce him and marry 5786:Vettori, Giulia (2022). 5610:Spaeth, Barbette Stanley 5531:. New York: Grove Press. 4839:; see Robert Schilling, 4042:(1st century AD) in his 3590:The late Imperial Roman 3264:Bauman, Richard (1992). 2979:(New York, 1960), p. 50. 2702:) were citizens without 2645:Women in ancient warfare 2070:Clothing in ancient Rome 659:Marriage in ancient Rome 445:A daughter kept her own 258:Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa 68:, whose stories took on 7798:Roman–Iranian relations 6273:Optimates and populares 5614:The Roman goddess Ceres 5371:12.6721(5), one of the 5257:The Last Pagans of Rome 4639:The Roman Goddess Ceres 4463:Hallet, Judith (1984). 4358:2.26.11 L, as cited in 4002:Marcus Aurelius: A Life 3741:The Spirit of Roman Law 3494:The Spirit of Roman Law 3468:The Spirit of Roman Law 3354:8.3.1; Joseph Farrell, 2635:Women in ancient Sparta 2510:Villa Romana del Casale 2449:Slavery in ancient Rome 2331:Gynecology and medicine 1838:Indo-European tradition 1822:male and a female deity 1796:first day of each month 1569:immortalized the woman 1544:Marcus Aemilius Lepidus 1283:, owned estates in the 799:of a seated woman from 198:Childhood and education 7808:Civil wars and revolts 7074:Sextus Pompeius Festus 6721:Conflict of the Orders 6080:Legislative assemblies 5543:, 2007), Pp. xiv, 178. 5529:The Great Roman Ladies 5145:Looking at Lovemaking, 4966:The Great Roman Ladies 4940:The Great Roman Ladies 4929:(Brill, 2009), p. 255. 4615:, vol. 1, pp. 296–297. 4512:Tacitus, Annals 15.71. 4477:Arthur Ernest Gordon, 4254:The Great Roman Ladies 4241:The Great Roman Ladies 4182:The Great Roman Ladies 4169:Life of Cato the Elder 4135:The Great Roman Ladies 4082:Life of Cato the Elder 3965:Life of Cato the Elder 2977:The Great Roman Ladies 2695:civitas sine suffragio 2493:Villa of the Mysteries 2453:Ancient Roman freedmen 2397: 2268: 2209: 2161: 2061: 1993: 1951: 1863: 1820:represented by both a 1785: 1658: 1619:Women and the military 1477:preserves a husband's 1424: 1408:The heroic suicide of 1313: 1072: 1018: 979: 898: 804: 668: 562: 515: 430: 390: 308:; for example, at the 268: 235:. Girls coming of age 207: 90:Julio-Claudian dynasty 35: 7829:Women in ancient Rome 7517:Simplicius of Cilicia 7269:Quintus Curtius Rufus 6498:Siege in Ancient Rome 6107:Executive magistrates 5665:D'Ambra, Eve (2006). 5535:Daehner, Jens (ed.), 5527:Assa, Janine (1960). 5501:Tacitus, Annals 15.37 5419:gynecological writer 5263:and Maureen B. Fant, 5223:The Garden of Priapus 5169:The Garden of Priapus 4503:Tacitus, Annals 15.51 4156:in Roman Law and Life 3991:Tacitus, Annals XVI.6 3479:Judith Evans Grubbs, 2857:2.70 and the related 2391: 2266: 2204: 2155: 2049: 1991: 1978:Clement of Alexandria 1949: 1892:infant mortality rate 1858: 1779: 1755:, the high priest of 1680:. Although the state 1653:, with pedestals for 1648: 1601:Agrippina the Younger 1548:Agrippina the Younger 1529:Agrippina the Younger 1510:traditional oligarchy 1407: 1381:Most Romans lived in 1352:, dancer or acrobat, 1305: 1221:) at home. The home ( 1063: 1008: 974: 965:Further information: 891:Pompeian Fourth Style 881: 795: 772:This archaic form of 716:, "by purchase"; and 666: 585:malicious prosecution 555:Pompeian Fourth Style 552: 493: 424: 388: 274:public primary school 266: 205: 133:Latin literary genres 98:Agrippina the Younger 42:women in ancient Rome 21: 7527:Stephanus Byzantinus 7432:Eusebius of Caesaria 7294:Sidonius Apollinaris 6984:Ammianus Marcellinus 6323:Tribune of the plebs 5541:J. Paul Getty Museum 5455:Law and Life of Rome 3712:Antiquitates Romanae 3646:Roman Law in Context 3438:Roman Law in Context 2042:Attire and adornment 1885:St. Peter's Basilica 1810:was the wife of the 1798:. The names of some 1651:House of the Vestals 1573:for her part in the 1135:, the mother of the 747:was the norm in the 328:, the young wife of 96:(58 BC – AD 29) and 7703:Distinguished women 7354:Velleius Paterculus 7194:Nicolaus Damascenus 7174:Marcellus Empiricus 6563:Republican currency 5790:. Bari: Edipuglia. 4767:, p. 136, based on 4324:by Brian K. Harvey. 4228:A Companion to Ovid 3325:Richard A. Bauman, 3161:Judith P. Hallett, 2615:List of Roman women 2607:Ancient Rome portal 2082:. Women used white 2023:Agrippina the Elder 1575:Pisonian conspiracy 1123:ius trium liberorum 904:College of Pontiffs 457:Women and sexuality 306:religious festivals 92:, most prominently 70:mythic significance 7477:Phlegon of Tralles 7284:Seneca the Younger 6758:Naming conventions 6488:Personal equipment 6021:Later Roman Empire 5822:Dr. Susan Martin, 5627:Berg, Ria (2023). 5539:(Los Angeles: The 5510:Thomas AJ McGinn, 5488:Thomas AJ McGinn, 5475:Thomas AJ McGinn, 5247:Anthony Corbeill, 4951:Garrett G. Fagan, 4869:35 (1988) 152–163. 4852:Stephen L. Dyson, 4837:Etruscan influence 4582:Celia E. Schultz, 4401:Celia E. Schultz, 4120:W. Jeffrey Tatum, 3926:Frier and McGinn, 3913:Frier and McGinn, 3900:Frier and McGinn, 3801:inclusive counting 3752:Frier and McGinn, 3674:Frier and McGinn, 3611:Frier and McGinn, 3564:Frier and McGinn, 3551:Wiesner, Merry E. 3532:Cinctus vinctusque 3425:Women and Politics 3412:Women and Politics 3399:Women and Politics 3373:Women and Politics 3199:Frier and McGinn, 3032:Sandra R. Joshel, 2827:(Routledge, 1998). 2712:A.N. Sherwin-White 2398: 2344:Hippocratic Corpus 2269: 2253:and the love poets 2210: 2162: 2062: 2015:military campaigns 1994: 1962:, or to visit the 1952: 1864: 1786: 1686:college of Vestals 1659: 1542:died, her widower 1525:early Roman Empire 1489:, the daughter of 1425: 1341:from prosecution. 1314: 1073: 1019: 980: 899: 824:). By the time of 805: 757:inheritance rights 724:always married by 669: 563: 431: 391: 269: 208: 109:; and the empress 36: 7816: 7815: 7778:Pontifices maximi 7560: 7559: 7417:Diogenes Laërtius 7239:Pliny the Younger 6994:Asconius Pedianus 6954:Romance languages 6826:Civil engineering 6568:Imperial currency 6441:Political control 6402: 6401: 6036: 6035: 5797:979-12-5995-016-1 5780:978-1-5064-1188-0 5768:Schenk, Christine 5760:978-84-1340-452-3 5743:978-0-19-983235-4 5697:978-90-04-53451-3 5638:978-88-913-2740-6 5429:Roman Sexualities 5415:, as well as the 5300:Roman Sexualities 5267:, p. 350, note 5. 5171:, pp. 52, 54, 68. 5078:Pomeroy, Sarah B. 5048:978-0-299-21313-8 4912:, vol. 1, p. 297. 4910:Religions of Rome 4867:Greece & Rome 4671:Ariadne Staples, 4613:Religions of Rome 4390:Roman Sexualities 4193:Susan Treggiari, 4150:Jane F. Gardner, 4141:, vol. 1, p. 115. 4055:Jane F. Gardner, 3889:The Roman Wedding 3866:The Roman Wedding 3786:Karen K. Hersch, 3765:Susan Treggiari, 2883:Judith P. Hallett 2853:, p. 128, citing 2716:Roman Citizenship 2565:Septimius Severus 2429:oversized phallus 1936:Social activities 1834:twelve major gods 1657:in the foreground 1584:According to the 1579:Egnatia Maximilla 1557:Valeria Messalina 1420:, as pictured by 1297:First Servile War 1252:virtuous matron. 926:; and finally to 857:Spurius Carvilius 490:Women and the law 429:, Italy (1–79 AD) 350:Always a daughter 339:Lex Papia Poppaea 260:when she was 14. 231:, and especially 165:through male eyes 157:putting on makeup 7851: 7839:Women by culture 7834:Women by country 7768:Magistri equitum 7683:Cities and towns 7676: 7602:Constantinopolis 7412:Diodorus Siculus 7344:Valerius Maximus 7279:Seneca the Elder 7199:Nonius Marcellus 6967: 6966: 6520:Hippika gymnasia 6483:Infantry tactics 6389:Consular tribune 6379:Magister equitum 6328:Military tribune 6293: 6292: 6253:Pontifex maximus 6248:Princeps senatus 6238:Magister militum 6004:Byzantine Empire 5925: 5924: 5886: 5879: 5872: 5863: 5862: 5801: 5764: 5733:Osgood, Josiah. 5730: 5707:Gérard Minaud, 5706: 5701: 5680: 5661: 5642: 5606: 5581:Gardner, Jane F. 5577: 5556: 5532: 5515: 5508: 5502: 5499: 5493: 5486: 5480: 5473: 5467: 5464: 5458: 5451: 5445: 5438: 5432: 5399: 5393: 5357: 5351: 5348: 5342: 5339: 5333: 5322: 5316: 5313: 5307: 5296: 5290: 5283: 5277: 5274: 5268: 5245: 5239: 5232: 5226: 5219: 5213: 5187: 5181: 5178: 5172: 5158: 5152: 5141: 5135: 5125: 5119: 5114:John R. Clarke, 5112: 5106: 5099: 5093: 5090: 5084: 5075: 5069: 5066: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5055: 5032: 5026: 5023: 5017: 5014: 5008: 5005: 4996: 4993: 4987: 4984: 4978: 4975: 4969: 4962: 4956: 4949: 4943: 4936: 4930: 4919: 4913: 4902: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4876: 4870: 4863: 4857: 4850: 4844: 4829: 4823: 4813: 4807: 4797: 4791: 4784: 4778: 4761: 4755: 4745: 4739: 4724: 4718: 4708: 4702: 4695: 4689: 4682: 4676: 4669: 4663: 4648: 4642: 4635: 4629: 4622: 4616: 4605: 4599: 4580: 4574: 4564: 4558: 4554: 4548: 4544: 4538: 4535: 4529: 4519: 4513: 4510: 4504: 4501: 4495: 4488: 4482: 4475: 4469: 4468: 4460: 4454: 4441: 4435: 4425: 4419: 4412: 4406: 4399: 4393: 4386: 4380: 4369: 4363: 4349: 4343: 4340: 4334: 4331: 4325: 4318: 4312: 4309: 4303: 4300: 4294: 4291: 4285: 4282: 4276: 4263: 4257: 4250: 4244: 4237: 4231: 4224: 4218: 4208: 4202: 4191: 4185: 4178: 4172: 4165: 4159: 4148: 4142: 4131: 4125: 4118: 4112: 4102: 4096: 4075: 4069: 4066: 4060: 4053: 4047: 4036: 4030: 4020: 4014: 4011: 4005: 3998: 3992: 3989: 3983: 3976: 3970: 3958: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3937: 3931: 3924: 3918: 3911: 3905: 3898: 3892: 3885: 3879: 3862: 3856: 3843:Karen K. Hersh, 3841: 3835: 3826: 3820: 3810: 3804: 3797: 3791: 3784: 3778: 3767:Roman Marriage: 3763: 3757: 3750: 3744: 3737: 3731: 3721: 3715: 3705: 3699: 3689: 3683: 3672: 3666: 3655: 3649: 3644:David Johnston, 3642: 3636: 3622: 3616: 3609: 3603: 3588: 3582: 3575: 3569: 3562: 3556: 3549: 3543: 3529: 3523: 3516: 3510: 3507: 3501: 3496:, p. 13; Gaius, 3490: 3484: 3477: 3471: 3464: 3458: 3451: 3445: 3434: 3428: 3421: 3415: 3408: 3402: 3395: 3389: 3382: 3376: 3369: 3363: 3352:Valerius Maximus 3349: 3343: 3336: 3330: 3323: 3317: 3316: 3308: 3299: 3298: 3292: 3284: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3261: 3248: 3245: 3239: 3236:The Roman Family 3232: 3226: 3223: 3217: 3210: 3204: 3197: 3188: 3181: 3175: 3172: 3166: 3159: 3153: 3144: 3138: 3131: 3125: 3118: 3112: 3105: 3099: 3096: 3090: 3087: 3081: 3074: 3068: 3061: 3055: 3052: 3046: 3043: 3037: 3034:Sheila Murnaghan 3030: 3024: 3008: 3002: 2999: 2993: 2986: 2980: 2973: 2967: 2960: 2954: 2951: 2945: 2938: 2932: 2929: 2923: 2920: 2914: 2911: 2902: 2899: 2890: 2880: 2874: 2871: 2862: 2847: 2841: 2834: 2828: 2821: 2815: 2802: 2796: 2789: 2783: 2776: 2770: 2756: 2750: 2739: 2733: 2678: 2672: 2665: 2609: 2604: 2603: 2602: 2518:Freedwomen were 2512:, 4th century AD 2474: 2465: 2278:servitium amoris 2226:Roman erotic art 2191:Pompeia Celerina 1912:, and a host of 1802:are recorded by 1800:reginae sacrorum 1782:Capitoline Triad 1761:magico-religious 1740:Pontifex Maximus 1714:, "priestess of 1708:sacerdos Cereris 1678:religion of Rome 1667:animal sacrifice 1587:Historia Augusta 1546:and her sisters 1491:Cato the Younger 1285:province of Asia 1202:, 1st century AD 1180: 1171: 1108:; the family of 1091:Columna Lactaria 943:Cato the Younger 924:Scribonius Curio 889:, Roman fresco, 812:Valerius Maximus 803:, 1st century AD 540:as was customary 523:Valerius Maximus 513: 330:Pompey the Great 326:Cornelia Metella 315:Carmen Saeculare 116: 80:, mother of the 58:Roman historians 54:political office 7859: 7858: 7854: 7853: 7852: 7850: 7849: 7848: 7844:Women by period 7819: 7818: 7817: 7812: 7674: 7672: 7666: 7556: 7392:Aëtius of Amida 7373: 7359:Verrius Flaccus 7339:Valerius Antias 7299:Silius Italicus 7234:Pliny the Elder 7179:Marcus Aurelius 7054:Cornelius Nepos 7004:Aurelius Victor 6958: 6880: 6792: 6726:Secessio plebis 6697: 6572: 6524: 6398: 6352: 6282: 6164: 6116: 6032: 5953: 5914: 5896: 5890: 5852:, April 9, 2008 5836:Moya K. Mason, 5808: 5798: 5761: 5727: 5704: 5698: 5677: 5658: 5639: 5623: 5621:Further reading 5603: 5574: 5523: 5518: 5509: 5505: 5500: 5496: 5487: 5483: 5474: 5470: 5465: 5461: 5452: 5448: 5439: 5435: 5403:Aëtius of Amida 5400: 5396: 5358: 5354: 5349: 5345: 5340: 5336: 5323: 5319: 5314: 5310: 5297: 5293: 5284: 5280: 5275: 5271: 5246: 5242: 5233: 5229: 5220: 5216: 5194:Natural History 5190:Pliny the Elder 5188: 5184: 5179: 5175: 5159: 5155: 5142: 5138: 5126: 5122: 5113: 5109: 5100: 5096: 5091: 5087: 5076: 5072: 5067: 5063: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5033: 5029: 5024: 5020: 5015: 5011: 5006: 4999: 4994: 4990: 4985: 4981: 4976: 4972: 4963: 4959: 4950: 4946: 4937: 4933: 4920: 4916: 4903: 4899: 4889: 4887: 4885:MythologySource 4877: 4873: 4864: 4860: 4851: 4847: 4830: 4826: 4814: 4810: 4799:Michael Lipka, 4798: 4794: 4785: 4781: 4774:ordo sacerdotum 4762: 4758: 4746: 4742: 4725: 4721: 4709: 4705: 4696: 4692: 4684:Gary Forsythe, 4683: 4679: 4670: 4666: 4649: 4645: 4636: 4632: 4623: 4619: 4606: 4602: 4581: 4577: 4565: 4561: 4555: 4551: 4545: 4541: 4536: 4532: 4520: 4516: 4511: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4489: 4485: 4476: 4472: 4461: 4457: 4442: 4438: 4432:Natural History 4428:Pliny the Elder 4426: 4422: 4413: 4409: 4400: 4396: 4387: 4383: 4375:; Jane Bingham, 4370: 4366: 4350: 4346: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4319: 4315: 4310: 4306: 4301: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4279: 4266:Gaston Boissier 4264: 4260: 4251: 4247: 4238: 4234: 4225: 4221: 4211:Hermann Fränkel 4209: 4205: 4197:Iusti Coniuges 4195:Roman Marriage: 4192: 4188: 4179: 4175: 4166: 4162: 4149: 4145: 4132: 4128: 4119: 4115: 4103: 4099: 4076: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4054: 4050: 4037: 4033: 4027:Miles Gloriosus 4021: 4017: 4012: 4008: 3999: 3995: 3990: 3986: 3977: 3973: 3959: 3955: 3947: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3925: 3921: 3912: 3908: 3899: 3895: 3886: 3882: 3863: 3859: 3842: 3838: 3830:Roman Questions 3827: 3823: 3811: 3807: 3798: 3794: 3785: 3781: 3764: 3760: 3751: 3747: 3738: 3734: 3722: 3718: 3706: 3702: 3690: 3686: 3673: 3669: 3656: 3652: 3643: 3639: 3623: 3619: 3610: 3606: 3589: 3585: 3576: 3572: 3563: 3559: 3550: 3546: 3534:, according to 3530: 3526: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3491: 3487: 3478: 3474: 3465: 3461: 3452: 3448: 3435: 3431: 3422: 3418: 3409: 3405: 3396: 3392: 3383: 3379: 3370: 3366: 3350: 3346: 3337: 3333: 3324: 3320: 3309: 3302: 3286: 3285: 3277: 3273: 3262: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3233: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3211: 3207: 3198: 3191: 3182: 3178: 3173: 3169: 3160: 3156: 3145: 3141: 3132: 3128: 3119: 3115: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3093: 3088: 3084: 3075: 3071: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3040: 3031: 3027: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2987: 2983: 2974: 2970: 2961: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2939: 2935: 2930: 2926: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2905: 2900: 2893: 2881: 2877: 2872: 2865: 2848: 2844: 2835: 2831: 2822: 2818: 2803: 2799: 2790: 2786: 2777: 2773: 2759:Kristina Milnor 2757: 2753: 2740: 2736: 2710:following, and 2679: 2675: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2605: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2560: 2554: 2516: 2515: 2514: 2513: 2500: 2477: 2476: 2475: 2467: 2466: 2455: 2445: 2353:family planning 2339: 2333: 2321:didactic poetry 2312:The Art of Love 2294:Clodius Pulcher 2261: 2255: 2218:Augustan period 2199: 2178:Cato the Censor 2072: 2044: 2008:Cato the Censor 1944: 1938: 1881:sacerdos maxima 1791:regina sacrorum 1663:Roman festivals 1643: 1635:Trajan's Column 1621: 1559:conspired with 1474:Laudatio Turiae 1458:Cato the Censor 1402: 1334:brick factories 1270:Gaston Boissier 1266: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1203: 1194: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1173: 1172: 1161: 1110:Clodius Pulcher 1058: 1042:Claudia Octavia 1003: 988:senatorial rank 969: 963: 920:Clodius Pulcher 876: 790: 661: 655: 532:Maesia Sentinas 514: 504: 492: 483: 475:Publius Clodius 467:Julius Caesar's 459: 363:patria potestas 358: 352: 347: 254:Caecilia Attica 239:their dolls to 200: 127:and especially 12: 11: 5: 7857: 7847: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7814: 7813: 7811: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7780: 7775: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 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6947:Ecclesiastical 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6901: 6896: 6890: 6888: 6882: 6881: 6879: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6802: 6800: 6794: 6793: 6791: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6749: 6748: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6707: 6705: 6699: 6698: 6696: 6695: 6690: 6688:Toys and games 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6659: 6658: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6582: 6580: 6574: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6534: 6532: 6526: 6525: 6523: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6501: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6470: 6465: 6464: 6463: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6412: 6410: 6404: 6403: 6400: 6399: 6397: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6360: 6358: 6354: 6353: 6351: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6299: 6297: 6290: 6284: 6283: 6281: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6228:Vigintisexviri 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6188:Cursus honorum 6185: 6180: 6174: 6172: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6126: 6124: 6118: 6117: 6115: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6103: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6046: 6044: 6038: 6037: 6034: 6033: 6031: 6030: 6029: 6028: 6018: 6017: 6016: 6011: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5994: 5987:Western Empire 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5963: 5961: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5951: 5946: 5945: 5944: 5934: 5928: 5922: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5912: 5907: 5901: 5898: 5897: 5889: 5888: 5881: 5874: 5866: 5860: 5859: 5853: 5843: 5833: 5828: 5819: 5814: 5807: 5806:External links 5804: 5803: 5802: 5796: 5783: 5765: 5759: 5746: 5731: 5726:978-1441164216 5725: 5712: 5702: 5696: 5681: 5676:978-0521521581 5675: 5662: 5657:978-0190455897 5656: 5643: 5637: 5622: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5607: 5601: 5588: 5578: 5572: 5557: 5544: 5533: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5516: 5503: 5494: 5481: 5468: 5459: 5446: 5433: 5413:Paul of Aegina 5394: 5352: 5343: 5334: 5317: 5308: 5291: 5278: 5269: 5261:Mary Lefkowitz 5240: 5227: 5214: 5196:25.95, citing 5182: 5173: 5153: 5136: 5120: 5107: 5094: 5085: 5070: 5061: 5047: 5027: 5018: 5009: 4997: 4988: 4979: 4970: 4957: 4944: 4931: 4914: 4897: 4871: 4858: 4845: 4824: 4808: 4792: 4779: 4756: 4740: 4719: 4703: 4690: 4677: 4664: 4643: 4630: 4617: 4600: 4575: 4559: 4549: 4539: 4530: 4514: 4505: 4496: 4483: 4470: 4455: 4436: 4420: 4407: 4394: 4381: 4364: 4344: 4335: 4326: 4313: 4304: 4295: 4286: 4277: 4258: 4245: 4232: 4219: 4203: 4186: 4173: 4160: 4143: 4126: 4113: 4097: 4070: 4061: 4048: 4031: 4015: 4006: 4000:Frank McLynn, 3993: 3984: 3971: 3953: 3941: 3932: 3919: 3906: 3893: 3891:, pp. 103–104. 3880: 3857: 3853:Roman Marriage 3836: 3821: 3813:Eva Cantarella 3805: 3792: 3779: 3769:Iusti Coniuges 3758: 3745: 3732: 3728:Noctes Atticae 3716: 3700: 3684: 3667: 3650: 3637: 3625:Eva Cantarella 3617: 3604: 3583: 3570: 3557: 3544: 3524: 3511: 3502: 3485: 3472: 3459: 3446: 3429: 3416: 3403: 3390: 3377: 3364: 3344: 3331: 3318: 3300: 3271: 3249: 3240: 3227: 3218: 3205: 3189: 3176: 3167: 3154: 3139: 3126: 3113: 3100: 3091: 3082: 3069: 3056: 3047: 3038: 3025: 3015:Life of Pompey 3003: 2994: 2981: 2968: 2955: 2946: 2933: 2924: 2915: 2903: 2891: 2875: 2863: 2842: 2836:Beryl Rawson, 2829: 2816: 2797: 2784: 2771: 2751: 2734: 2682:Roman marriage 2673: 2659: 2657: 2654: 2653: 2652: 2647: 2642: 2637: 2632: 2627: 2622: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2594: 2591: 2556:Main article: 2553: 2550: 2479: 2478: 2469: 2468: 2460: 2459: 2458: 2457: 2456: 2444: 2441: 2437:late antiquity 2433:clitoridectomy 2383:hypersexuality 2373:women's health 2335:Main article: 2332: 2329: 2254: 2248: 2198: 2195: 2158:Flavian period 2043: 2040: 1937: 1934: 1846:patron deities 1642: 1641:Religious life 1639: 1626:Hadrian's wall 1620: 1617: 1518:Livia Drusilla 1422:Pierre Mignard 1412:, daughter of 1401: 1398: 1265: 1262: 1193:, 1st century 1185: 1184: 1175: 1174: 1166: 1165: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1095:Cato the Elder 1057: 1054: 1046:Poppaea Sabina 1027:Cato the Elder 1023:domestic abuse 1002: 1001:Domestic abuse 999: 962: 959: 947:moral namesake 935:Greek observer 875: 872: 789: 786: 749:early Republic 676:Roman Republic 657:Main article: 654: 651: 606:pater familias 502: 498:Celsus himself 491: 488: 482: 479: 458: 455: 412:early Republic 395:pater familias 376:pater familias 356:Pater familias 351: 348: 346: 343: 312:of 17 BC, the 233:bone and ivory 199: 196: 76:women such as 74:Republican-era 66:Claudia Quinta 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7856: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7826: 7824: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7680: 7678: 7669: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7563: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7384: 7382: 7380: 7376: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7134:Julius Paulus 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7069:Fabius Pictor 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6976: 6974: 6972: 6968: 6965: 6961: 6955: 6952: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6887: 6883: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6806:Amphitheatres 6804: 6803: 6801: 6799: 6795: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6747: 6744: 6743: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6708: 6706: 6704: 6700: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6657: 6654: 6653: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6583: 6581: 6579: 6575: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6543:Deforestation 6541: 6539: 6536: 6535: 6533: 6531: 6527: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6493:Siege engines 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6475: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6426:Establishment 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6413: 6411: 6409: 6405: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6361: 6359: 6357:Extraordinary 6355: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6343:Promagistrate 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6300: 6298: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6285: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6173: 6171: 6167: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6130:Twelve Tables 6128: 6127: 6125: 6123: 6119: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6082: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6043: 6039: 6027: 6024: 6023: 6022: 6019: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6005: 6002: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5989: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5964: 5962: 5960: 5956: 5950: 5947: 5943: 5940: 5939: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5917: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5902: 5899: 5894: 5887: 5882: 5880: 5875: 5873: 5868: 5867: 5864: 5857: 5854: 5851: 5847: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5825: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5799: 5793: 5789: 5784: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5766: 5762: 5756: 5752: 5747: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5722: 5718: 5713: 5710: 5703: 5699: 5693: 5689: 5688: 5682: 5678: 5672: 5668: 5663: 5659: 5653: 5649: 5644: 5640: 5634: 5630: 5625: 5624: 5615: 5611: 5608: 5604: 5602:0-691-03570-9 5598: 5594: 5589: 5586: 5582: 5579: 5575: 5573:0-19-516186-6 5569: 5565: 5564: 5558: 5554: 5553:Jonathan Cape 5550: 5545: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5525: 5524: 5513: 5507: 5498: 5491: 5485: 5478: 5472: 5463: 5456: 5450: 5443: 5437: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5417:North African 5414: 5410: 5409: 5404: 5398: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5369: 5364: 5363: 5356: 5347: 5338: 5331: 5327: 5321: 5312: 5305: 5301: 5295: 5288: 5282: 5273: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5244: 5237: 5231: 5224: 5218: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5186: 5177: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5157: 5150: 5146: 5140: 5133: 5129: 5124: 5117: 5111: 5104: 5098: 5089: 5083: 5079: 5074: 5065: 5050: 5044: 5040: 5039: 5031: 5022: 5013: 5004: 5002: 4992: 4983: 4974: 4967: 4961: 4954: 4948: 4941: 4935: 4928: 4924: 4918: 4911: 4907: 4901: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4868: 4862: 4855: 4849: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4833:Archaic Triad 4828: 4821: 4820:De re rustica 4817: 4812: 4806: 4802: 4796: 4789: 4783: 4776: 4775: 4770: 4766: 4760: 4753: 4749: 4744: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4723: 4716: 4712: 4707: 4700: 4694: 4687: 4681: 4674: 4668: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4647: 4640: 4634: 4627: 4621: 4614: 4610: 4604: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4588:paterfamilias 4585: 4579: 4572: 4568: 4563: 4553: 4543: 4534: 4527: 4523: 4518: 4509: 4500: 4493: 4487: 4480: 4474: 4466: 4459: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4440: 4433: 4429: 4424: 4417: 4411: 4404: 4398: 4391: 4385: 4378: 4374: 4368: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4348: 4339: 4330: 4323: 4317: 4308: 4299: 4290: 4281: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4262: 4255: 4249: 4242: 4236: 4229: 4223: 4216: 4212: 4207: 4200: 4196: 4190: 4183: 4177: 4170: 4164: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4140: 4136: 4133:Janine Assa, 4130: 4123: 4117: 4110: 4106: 4101: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4083: 4079: 4074: 4065: 4058: 4052: 4045: 4041: 4035: 4028: 4024: 4019: 4010: 4003: 3997: 3988: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3966: 3962: 3957: 3950: 3945: 3936: 3929: 3923: 3916: 3910: 3903: 3897: 3890: 3884: 3877: 3873: 3872: 3867: 3861: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3831: 3825: 3818: 3814: 3809: 3802: 3796: 3789: 3783: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3762: 3755: 3749: 3742: 3739:Alan Watson, 3736: 3729: 3725: 3724:Aulus Gellius 3720: 3713: 3709: 3704: 3697: 3693: 3692:Suzanne Dixon 3688: 3681: 3677: 3671: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3647: 3641: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3614: 3608: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3587: 3580: 3574: 3567: 3561: 3554: 3548: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3521: 3515: 3506: 3499: 3495: 3489: 3482: 3476: 3469: 3466:Alan Watson, 3463: 3456: 3450: 3444:, Chapter IV. 3443: 3439: 3433: 3426: 3420: 3413: 3407: 3400: 3394: 3387: 3381: 3374: 3368: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3341: 3335: 3328: 3322: 3314: 3307: 3305: 3296: 3290: 3282: 3275: 3267: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3244: 3237: 3231: 3225:Hallett, 139. 3222: 3215: 3214:paterfamilias 3209: 3202: 3196: 3194: 3186: 3180: 3171: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3148: 3143: 3136: 3130: 3123: 3117: 3110: 3104: 3095: 3086: 3079: 3073: 3066: 3060: 3051: 3042: 3035: 3029: 3023: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3007: 2998: 2991: 2985: 2978: 2975:Janine Assa, 2972: 2965: 2959: 2950: 2944:, pp. 197–198 2943: 2937: 2928: 2919: 2910: 2908: 2898: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2870: 2868: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2846: 2839: 2833: 2826: 2820: 2813: 2812: 2807: 2801: 2794: 2788: 2781: 2775: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2755: 2748: 2744: 2738: 2731: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2696: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2670: 2664: 2660: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2643: 2641: 2638: 2636: 2633: 2631: 2628: 2626: 2623: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2612: 2608: 2597: 2590: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2559: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2473: 2464: 2454: 2450: 2440: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2421: 2419: 2418:gynecological 2414: 2409: 2407: 2403: 2395: 2390: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2379: 2378:raison d'être 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2345: 2338: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2313: 2307: 2305: 2304: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2265: 2260: 2252: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2232: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2214:small breasts 2207: 2203: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2148: 2145:as earrings, 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2115: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2101: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2078:even wrote a 2077: 2071: 2067: 2060: 2056: 2053:attired in a 2052: 2048: 2039: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2004:chariot races 2001: 2000: 1990: 1986: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1973:mixed bathing 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1948: 1943: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1862: 1857: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1842:supreme triad 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1817: 1815: 1814: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1783: 1778: 1774: 1772: 1768: 1767: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1753:Flamen Dialis 1749: 1747: 1746: 1741: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1700:either gender 1697: 1693: 1692: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1656: 1652: 1649:Ruins of the 1647: 1638: 1636: 1631: 1627: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1593: 1589: 1588: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1475: 1471:known as the 1470: 1466: 1461: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1439: 1434: 1430: 1429:public sphere 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1406: 1397: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1385: 1379: 1377: 1373: 1372:calligraphers 1369: 1365: 1364: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1342: 1339: 1335: 1329: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1311: 1310: 1304: 1300: 1298: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1281: 1278:Martyrdom of 1273: 1271: 1261: 1259: 1253: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1237:Julius Caesar 1234: 1230: 1226: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1188: 1179: 1170: 1156: 1154: 1150: 1149:proscriptions 1146: 1142: 1141:Julius Caesar 1138: 1134: 1128: 1126: 1124: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1106:Late Republic 1102: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1016: 1012: 1007: 998: 996: 995: 989: 984: 978: 973: 968: 958: 956: 952: 948: 944: 939: 936: 931: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 907: 905: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 871: 869: 864: 862: 858: 854: 849: 847: 843: 842: 837: 836: 831: 830:Julius Caesar 827: 823: 822: 817: 816:Twelve Tables 813: 809: 802: 798: 794: 785: 783: 779: 778:Julius Caesar 775: 770: 768: 763: 758: 754: 750: 746: 741: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 710:panis farreus 707: 706: 701: 697: 692: 690: 685: 681: 677: 672: 665: 660: 650: 648: 644: 640: 636: 635: 634:ius liberorum 630: 626: 622: 617: 615: 611: 607: 603: 602: 596: 594: 590: 586: 582: 581: 576: 572: 568: 560: 556: 551: 547: 545: 541: 537: 533: 528: 524: 520: 519:late Republic 511: 507: 501: 499: 487: 478: 476: 472: 469:second wife, 468: 464: 454: 452: 448: 443: 441: 437: 428: 423: 419: 417: 413: 408: 405: 401: 396: 387: 383: 381: 378:had mastery ( 377: 373: 369: 365: 364: 357: 342: 340: 334: 331: 327: 322: 317: 316: 311: 310:Secular Games 307: 302: 300: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 265: 261: 259: 255: 251: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 204: 195: 193: 189: 185: 180: 178: 175:and daughter 174: 170: 166: 162: 159:, practicing 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 112: 108: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 40: 33: 29: 25: 20: 16: 7748:Institutions 7612:Leptis Magna 7565:Major cities 7472:Philostratus 7259:Quadrigarius 7079:Rufus Festus 6942:Contemporary 6767: 6663:Romanization 6586:Architecture 6193:Collegiality 6042:Constitution 5893:Ancient Rome 5837: 5823: 5787: 5771: 5750: 5734: 5716: 5708: 5686: 5666: 5647: 5628: 5613: 5592: 5587:. Croom Helm 5584: 5562: 5548: 5536: 5528: 5521:Bibliography 5511: 5506: 5497: 5489: 5484: 5476: 5471: 5462: 5454: 5449: 5441: 5440:J.A. Crook, 5436: 5428: 5424: 5406: 5397: 5389: 5375: 5366: 5360: 5355: 5346: 5337: 5325: 5320: 5311: 5299: 5294: 5286: 5281: 5272: 5264: 5256: 5253:Alan Cameron 5248: 5243: 5235: 5230: 5222: 5217: 5205: 5193: 5185: 5176: 5168: 5164: 5156: 5148: 5144: 5139: 5131: 5123: 5115: 5110: 5102: 5097: 5088: 5081: 5073: 5064: 5052:. Retrieved 5037: 5030: 5021: 5012: 4991: 4982: 4973: 4965: 4960: 4952: 4947: 4939: 4934: 4926: 4922: 4917: 4909: 4905: 4900: 4888:. Retrieved 4884: 4874: 4866: 4861: 4853: 4848: 4840: 4827: 4819: 4811: 4800: 4795: 4790:, pp. 79–81. 4787: 4782: 4772: 4764: 4759: 4751: 4743: 4735: 4727: 4722: 4714: 4706: 4701:pp. 154–155. 4698: 4693: 4685: 4680: 4672: 4667: 4662:, pp. 70–71. 4659: 4655: 4651: 4646: 4638: 4633: 4625: 4620: 4612: 4608: 4603: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4578: 4570: 4562: 4552: 4542: 4533: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4508: 4499: 4491: 4486: 4478: 4473: 4464: 4458: 4447: 4439: 4431: 4423: 4415: 4410: 4402: 4397: 4389: 4384: 4376: 4367: 4359: 4355: 4347: 4338: 4329: 4321: 4316: 4307: 4298: 4289: 4280: 4269: 4261: 4253: 4248: 4240: 4235: 4227: 4222: 4214: 4206: 4198: 4194: 4189: 4181: 4176: 4168: 4163: 4155: 4151: 4146: 4138: 4134: 4129: 4121: 4116: 4108: 4100: 4092: 4088: 4081: 4073: 4064: 4056: 4051: 4043: 4038:As noted by 4034: 4026: 4018: 4009: 4001: 3996: 3987: 3979: 3974: 3964: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3935: 3927: 3922: 3914: 3909: 3901: 3896: 3888: 3883: 3869: 3865: 3860: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3839: 3829: 3824: 3816: 3808: 3795: 3787: 3782: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3761: 3753: 3748: 3740: 3735: 3727: 3719: 3711: 3703: 3695: 3687: 3679: 3675: 3670: 3665:, section V. 3662: 3658: 3653: 3645: 3640: 3632: 3628: 3620: 3612: 3607: 3599: 3595: 3592:jurist Gaius 3586: 3578: 3573: 3565: 3560: 3552: 3547: 3539: 3531: 3527: 3522:1.190–1.191. 3519: 3514: 3505: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3480: 3475: 3467: 3462: 3454: 3449: 3441: 3437: 3432: 3427:, pp. 51–52. 3424: 3419: 3411: 3406: 3401:, pp. 50–51. 3398: 3393: 3385: 3380: 3372: 3367: 3359: 3355: 3347: 3339: 3334: 3326: 3321: 3312: 3280: 3274: 3265: 3243: 3235: 3230: 3221: 3213: 3208: 3203:, pp. 19–20. 3200: 3184: 3179: 3170: 3162: 3157: 3150: 3142: 3134: 3129: 3121: 3116: 3111:, pp. 19–20. 3108: 3103: 3094: 3085: 3077: 3072: 3064: 3059: 3050: 3041: 3028: 3019:LacusCurtius 3014: 3006: 2997: 2989: 2984: 2976: 2971: 2963: 2958: 2949: 2941: 2936: 2927: 2918: 2886: 2878: 2850: 2845: 2837: 2832: 2824: 2819: 2809: 2800: 2792: 2787: 2779: 2774: 2766: 2762: 2754: 2746: 2742: 2737: 2727: 2723: 2715: 2707: 2699: 2693: 2685: 2680:The form of 2676: 2668: 2663: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2561: 2552:Prostitution 2539: 2535: 2532: 2517: 2502:Right image: 2501: 2480: 2422: 2410: 2399: 2376: 2342: 2340: 2310: 2308: 2301: 2277: 2274:Augustan era 2270: 2250: 2235: 2230: 2224:depicted in 2211: 2163: 2160:(80s–90s CE) 2122: 2118: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2098: 2096: 2073: 2058: 2054: 2033:was born in 2012: 1997: 1995: 1971:evidence of 1953: 1929: 1926:superstition 1918: 1907: 1889: 1880: 1868:Mid Republic 1865: 1818: 1813:rex sacrorum 1811: 1807: 1804:inscriptions 1799: 1789: 1787: 1764: 1750: 1743: 1736: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1695: 1689: 1675: 1660: 1622: 1612: 1603:, mother of 1596: 1590:the emperor 1585: 1583: 1565: 1561:Gaius Silius 1533: 1504:The rise of 1503: 1493:and wife of 1472: 1462: 1436: 1426: 1416:and wife of 1382: 1380: 1367: 1361: 1343: 1338:curse tablet 1330: 1315: 1307: 1293: 1277: 1274: 1267: 1254: 1228: 1222: 1218: 1207: 1196:Right image: 1195: 1186: 1129: 1121: 1103: 1074: 1035: 1020: 992: 985: 981: 932: 908: 900: 893:(45–79 AD), 865: 855:notes that " 850: 839: 833: 819: 806: 782:Latin rights 773: 771: 766: 761: 744: 742: 733: 726:confarreatio 725: 717: 713: 709: 705:confarreatio 703: 688: 683: 679: 673: 670: 643:jurist Gaius 632: 624: 620: 618: 605: 599: 597: 588: 578: 564: 557:(60–79 AD), 526: 516: 509: 494: 484: 460: 450: 444: 432: 415: 409: 394: 392: 379: 375: 371: 367: 361: 359: 335: 313: 303: 299:Roman values 270: 221:knucklebones 217:hoop-rolling 209: 194:of priests. 181: 153:dining rooms 125:Inscriptions 119: 104: 49: 41: 37: 24:Vibia Sabina 15: 7743:Geographers 7427:Dioscorides 7407:Cassius Dio 7029:Cassiodorus 6932:Renaissance 6538:Agriculture 6510:Auxiliaries 6451:Engineering 6288:Magistrates 6140:Citizenship 6135:Mos maiorum 6070:Late Empire 5705:(in French) 5667:Roman Women 5202:Pythagorean 5128:Amy Richlin 4444:Ronald Syme 4152:Family and 4044:Gynaecology 2499:, c. 50 BC 2481:Left image: 2406:infertility 2361:intercourse 2349:Hellenistic 2292:politician 2251:Mos maiorum 2222:Prostitutes 1877:Magna Mater 1875:and of the 1848:, Juno and 1595:called the 1433:Ronald Syme 1400:In politics 1393:non-citizen 1291:gymnasium. 1264:In business 1187:Left image: 1066:sarcophagus 961:Concubinage 928:Mark Antony 821:mos maiorum 647:Constantine 538:, and not, 447:family name 427:Herculaneum 404:noble women 7823:Categories 7632:Mediolanum 7572:Alexandria 7537:Themistius 7502:Porphyrius 7329:Tertullian 7264:Quintilian 7254:Propertius 7149:Lactantius 7099:Fulgentius 7034:Censorinus 6856:Sanitation 6841:Metallurgy 6798:Technology 6763:Demography 6711:Patricians 6678:Spectacles 6636:Literature 6631:Hairstyles 6468:Technology 6218:Praefectus 6170:Government 6160:Litigation 6145:Auctoritas 6090:Centuriate 5977:Principate 5972:Pax Romana 5932:Foundation 5551:. London: 5326:Gynecology 4986:Assa, 102. 4923:De legibus 4763:Forsythe, 4748:Jörg Rüpke 4736:Saturnalia 4715:Saturnalia 4567:Mary Beard 4522:Elagabalus 4167:Plutarch, 3828:Plutarch, 3657:Johnston, 3633:Philologus 3594:writes of 3520:Institutes 3436:Johnston, 3147:J.A. Crook 2811:Pro Caelio 2656:References 2586:Tigellinus 2520:manumitted 2447:See also: 2427:, like an 2402:amenorrhea 2375:, but the 2369:childbirth 2357:physiology 2303:Pro Caelio 2290:popularist 2257:See also: 2244:apotropaic 2197:Body image 2135:aquamarine 2064:See also: 2027:Germanicus 2021:'s mother 1968:casual sex 1940:See also: 1930:pro populo 1745:mola salsa 1696:sacerdotes 1630:Vindolanda 1592:Elagabalus 1538:'s sister 1454:Punic Wars 1354:prostitute 1318:senatorial 1159:Daily life 1114:birth rate 1056:Motherhood 955:Hortensius 916:popularist 874:Remarriage 868:Principate 722:Patricians 593:Principate 354:See also: 248:seen with 229:terracotta 7788:Quaestors 7718:Empresses 7708:Dynasties 7698:Dictators 7673:and other 7662:Volubilis 7657:Vindobona 7617:Londinium 7542:Theodoret 7512:Procopius 7492:Polyaenus 7467:Pausanias 7369:Vitruvius 7314:Symmachus 7309:Suetonius 7219:Petronius 7204:Obsequens 7169:Macrobius 7164:Lucretius 7089:Frontinus 7064:Eutropius 7049:Columella 6999:Augustine 6989:Appuleius 6937:Neo-Latin 6912:Classical 6903:Versions 6811:Aqueducts 6753:Patronage 6673:Sexuality 6646:Mythology 6621:Education 6611:Cosmetics 6436:Campaigns 6431:Structure 6384:Decemviri 6243:Imperator 5942:overthrow 5457:, p. 101. 5382:Roman art 5304:lactation 5221:Richlin, 5210:lactation 5198:Anaxilaus 5149:et passim 5068:Assa, 67. 5025:Assa, 66. 5016:Assa, 60. 5007:Assa, 65. 4995:Assa, 96. 4786:Schultz, 4732:Macrobius 4711:Macrobius 4697:Staples, 4434:, 35.147. 4373:Chapter 1 4004:, p. 435. 3904:, p. 480. 3849:et passim 3799:In Roman 3775:et passim 3659:Roman Law 3581:, pg. 133 3386:Carfrania 3289:cite book 3080:, p. 197. 2966:, p. 198. 2747:et passim 2729:peregrina 2724:et passim 2546:Vespasian 2491:from the 2365:pregnancy 2246:gesture. 2236:strophium 2231:strophium 2183:Hortensia 2170:Lex Oppia 2147:necklaces 2117:over her 1866:From the 1694:, plural 1615:, 13.5). 1597:senaculum 1571:Epicharis 1450:Lex Oppia 1447:sumptuary 1438:nobilitas 1346:wet nurse 1309:fullonica 1241:Calpurnia 1233:provinces 1219:salutatio 918:champion 841:clientela 730:plebeians 700:Roman law 696:Roman law 625:sui iuris 616:control. 610:intestate 601:sui iuris 589:pudicitia 544:Androgyne 463:Pudicitia 440:Dolabella 400:betrothal 294:Epictetus 290:centurion 237:dedicated 213:Roman art 72:; fierce 7793:Tribunes 7783:Praetors 7733:Generals 7713:Emperors 7622:Lugdunum 7607:Eboracum 7597:Carthage 7582:Aquileia 7497:Polybius 7487:Plutarch 7457:Libanius 7447:Josephus 7442:Herodian 7334:Tibullus 7249:Priscian 7224:Phaedrus 7184:Manilius 7129:Jordanes 7114:Hydatius 7044:Claudian 7024:Catullus 7014:Boëthius 7009:Ausonius 6927:Medieval 6899:Alphabet 6871:Theatres 6846:Numerals 6831:Concrete 6821:Circuses 6788:Bagaudae 6778:Adoption 6773:Marriage 6746:Assembly 6651:Religion 6626:Folklore 6606:Clothing 6601:Calendar 6558:Currency 6548:Commerce 6446:Strategy 6408:Military 6394:Triumvir 6374:Dictator 6369:Interrex 6348:Governor 6333:Quaestor 6296:Ordinary 6278:Province 6268:Tetrarch 6258:Augustus 6223:Vicarius 6213:Officium 6150:Imperium 6100:Plebeian 6060:Republic 5982:Dominate 5949:Republic 5910:Timeline 5770:(2017). 5373:Perusine 5225:, p. 38. 5165:Epigrams 5143:Clarke, 4968:, p. 92. 4942:, p. 73. 4921:Cicero, 4890:5 August 4738:1.15.19. 4652:hatrencu 4526:Aurelian 4418:, p. 80. 4414:Rawson, 4356:Opinions 4256:, p. 51. 4243:, p. 45. 4184:, p. 50. 4109:Dialogus 4078:Plutarch 3961:Plutarch 3928:Casebook 3917:, p. 52. 3915:Casebook 3902:Casebook 3790:, p. 48. 3754:Casebook 3676:Casebook 3663:Casebook 3615:, p. 53. 3613:Casebook 3602:, p. 54. 3600:Casebook 3568:, p. 20. 3492:Watson, 3442:Casebook 3423:Bauman, 3414:, p. 51. 3410:Bauman, 3397:Bauman, 3375:, p. 50. 3371:Bauman, 3238:, p. 21. 3234:Rawson, 3201:Casebook 3137:, p. 66. 3076:Rawson, 3067:, p. 45. 3063:Rawson, 3022:edition. 3011:Plutarch 2962:Rawson, 2940:Rawson, 2859:scholion 2849:Rawson, 2704:suffrage 2700:conubium 2692:granted 2686:conubium 2593:See also 2581:ne serva 2577:ne serva 2504:A floor 2425:clitoris 2282:Catullus 2174:Carthage 2131:emeralds 2031:Claudius 2019:Caligula 1766:nundinae 1732:ministra 1728:magistra 1724:ministra 1720:magistra 1712:Cerealis 1704:sacerdos 1691:Sacerdos 1682:colleges 1671:Bona Dea 1655:statuary 1540:Drusilla 1536:Caligula 1514:freedmen 1506:Augustus 1499:assassin 1389:plebeian 1326:Claudius 1249:Augustus 1133:Cornelia 1118:Augustus 1050:Commodus 1031:Plutarch 994:conubium 938:Plutarch 883:Heracles 835:amicitia 728:, while 714:coemptio 691:marriage 684:potestas 653:Marriage 629:Augustus 580:calumnia 536:Sentinum 503:— 416:potestas 380:dominium 192:colleges 184:religion 173:Terentia 145:Catullus 135:such as 129:epitaphs 102:Imperial 78:Cornelia 62:Lucretia 46:citizens 39:Freeborn 7763:Legions 7723:Fiction 7693:Consuls 7688:Climate 7642:Ravenna 7637:Pompeii 7627:Lutetia 7592:Bononia 7587:Berytus 7577:Antioch 7552:Zosimus 7547:Zonaras 7522:Sozomen 7507:Priscus 7482:Photius 7324:Terence 7319:Tacitus 7304:Statius 7289:Servius 7274:Sallust 7229:Plautus 7209:Orosius 7189:Martial 7144:Juvenal 7119:Hyginus 7104:Gellius 6963:Writers 6894:History 6876:Thermae 6866:Temples 6816:Bridges 6783:Slavery 6731:Equites 6703:Society 6683:Theatre 6656:Deities 6616:Cuisine 6596:Bathing 6578:Culture 6553:Finance 6530:Economy 6421:Borders 6416:History 6318:Tribune 6313:Praetor 6203:Legatus 6198:Emperor 6085:Curiate 6055:Kingdom 6050:History 6026:History 6009:decline 5967:History 5937:Kingdom 5920:History 5905:Outline 5826:, 1997. 5453:Crook, 5386:Priapus 5377:glandes 5362:Priapea 5330:Soranus 5161:Martial 5054:3 April 4805:online. 4771:on the 4592:familia 4452:online. 4448:Sallust 4154:Familia 4105:Tacitus 4040:Soranus 4023:Plautus 3930:, p. 50 3887:Hersh, 3864:Hersh, 3518:Gaius, 3133:Frier, 3107:Frier, 2855:Persius 2684:called 2573:infamia 2569:infamia 2497:Pompeii 2443:Slavery 2413:Soranus 2394:Priapus 2325:Juvenal 2240:hemlock 2092:carmine 2088:arsenic 1982:Hadrian 1960:temples 1909:di nixi 1861:diviner 1850:Minerva 1757:Jupiter 1613:Annales 1609:Tacitus 1567:Tacitus 1552:Livilla 1521:Augusta 1469:epitaph 1443:senator 1384:insulae 1363:infames 1358:midwife 1350:actress 1280:Pionius 1215:clients 1200:Stabiae 1191:Stabiae 1145:Aurelia 1137:Gracchi 1099:Tacitus 1086:Plautus 1068:c. 150 1013:with a 977:Pompeii 897:, Italy 887:Omphale 846:censors 844:). The 808:Divorce 801:Stabiae 788:Divorce 680:(manus) 614:agnatic 575:praetor 567:Afrania 561:, Italy 559:Pompeii 506:Juvenal 471:Pompeia 410:In the 368:familia 282:Martial 188:Vestals 82:Gracchi 32:Hadrian 7773:Nomina 7758:Legacy 7738:Gentes 7675:topics 7671:Lists 7652:Smyrna 7532:Strabo 7462:Lucian 7452:Julian 7402:Arrian 7397:Appian 7387:Aelian 7364:Vergil 7139:Justin 7124:Jerome 7109:Horace 7094:Fronto 7084:Florus 7059:Ennius 7039:Cicero 7019:Caesar 6917:Vulgar 6741:Tribes 6668:Romans 6478:Legion 6461:castra 6338:Aedile 6308:Censor 6303:Consul 6263:Caesar 6233:Lictor 6155:Status 6095:Tribal 6075:Senate 6065:Empire 5959:Empire 5895:topics 5794: 5778: 5757: 5741: 5723: 5694: 5673: 5654: 5635: 5599: 5583:1986. 5570: 5421:Muscio 5147:p. 34 5045: 4964:Assa, 4938:Assa, 4904:Beard 4769:Festus 4654:," in 4607:Beard 4547:29–36. 4252:Assa, 4239:Assa, 4180:Assa, 3871:passim 3714:, 2.25 3536:Festus 3500:1.173. 3340:Amesia 2808:; see 2806:Clodia 2542:Caenis 2524:patron 2506:mosaic 2489:fresco 2485:mirror 2367:, and 2355:. The 2298:Cicero 2286:Clodia 2166:Cannae 2143:pearls 2141:, and 2103:. The 1956:litter 1924:, or " 1906:, the 1904:Lucina 1832:. The 1830:Libera 1808:regina 1806:. The 1495:Brutus 1487:Porcia 1479:eulogy 1465:Appian 1418:Brutus 1410:Porcia 1368:nutrix 1356:, and 1322:Cicero 1320:rank. 1289:Sardis 1229:atrium 1211:guests 1011:maenad 951:Marcia 912:Fulvia 826:Cicero 797:Fresco 755:, any 510:Satire 436:Cicero 372:corpus 250:Cicero 219:, and 177:Tullia 169:Cicero 141:satire 137:comedy 111:Helena 86:Fulvia 84:, and 28:Trajan 7437:Galen 7379:Greek 7349:Varro 7159:Lucan 6971:Latin 6886:Latin 6861:Ships 6851:Roads 6836:Domes 6768:Women 6716:Plebs 6641:Music 6183:Forum 6178:Curia 4906:et al 4816:Varro 4717:1.16. 4609:et al 4557:2015. 4171:20.2. 4089:Strix 4046:2.18. 3968:20.2. 3876:Lucan 3596:manus 3498:Inst. 2690:towns 2206:Venus 2123:stola 2119:stola 2114:palla 2109:stola 2105:stola 2100:stola 2084:chalk 2059:palla 2055:stola 2051:Livia 1964:baths 1922:magic 1900:Diana 1826:Liber 1716:Ceres 1376:Pliny 1258:Livia 1224:domus 1153:Sulla 1015:cupid 774:manus 767:manus 762:Manus 753:dowry 745:manus 689:Manus 621:tutor 608:died 571:Sulla 451:nomen 321:Greek 245:Venus 241:Diana 225:Dolls 161:magic 106:mores 94:Livia 50:cives 44:were 7753:Laws 7728:Film 7647:Roma 7214:Ovid 7154:Livy 6922:Late 6736:Gens 6693:Wine 6505:Navy 6473:Army 6112:SPQR 6014:fall 5992:fall 5792:ISBN 5776:ISBN 5755:ISBN 5739:ISBN 5721:ISBN 5692:ISBN 5671:ISBN 5652:ISBN 5633:ISBN 5597:ISBN 5568:ISBN 5200:, a 5056:2013 5043:ISBN 4892:2021 4352:Paul 4320:See 4274:p.96 4085:20.3 4029:697. 3833:105. 3295:link 2451:and 2317:Ovid 2139:opal 2127:toga 2076:Ovid 2068:and 2057:and 2035:Gaul 1999:ludi 1896:Juno 1873:Isis 1828:and 1780:The 1771:week 1605:Nero 1550:and 1497:the 1414:Cato 1391:and 1245:Ovid 1038:Nero 933:The 885:and 838:and 828:and 734:usus 718:usus 641:the 393:The 286:Livy 280:and 278:Ovid 149:Ovid 147:and 64:and 6907:Old 6591:Art 6364:Rex 6208:Dux 6122:Law 5850:TLS 5425:ca. 5408:fl. 5368:CIL 5328:of 4908:., 4611:., 3017:55 2720:268 2309:In 2300:'s 2280:). 2086:or 2002:), 1844:of 1730:or 1710:or 1673:). 1151:of 1082:BCE 712:); 546:". 256:to 7825:: 5612:. 5255:, 5192:, 5163:, 5130:, 5080:, 5000:^ 4883:. 4818:, 4750:, 4734:, 4713:, 4446:, 4430:, 4354:, 4268:, 4213:, 4107:, 4080:, 4025:, 3963:, 3868:, 3710:, 3680:D. 3627:, 3303:^ 3291:}} 3287:{{ 3252:^ 3192:^ 3149:, 3013:, 2906:^ 2894:^ 2885:, 2866:^ 2714:, 2495:, 2363:, 2315:, 2306:. 2137:, 2133:, 1902:, 1898:, 1887:. 1374:. 1348:, 1260:. 1213:, 1155:. 1139:. 1078:CE 1070:CE 1009:A 639:CE 583:, 512:VI 508:, 301:. 223:. 139:, 115:c. 34:. 5885:e 5878:t 5871:v 5840:. 5800:. 5782:. 5763:. 5745:. 5729:. 5700:. 5679:. 5660:. 5641:. 5605:. 5576:. 5555:. 5423:( 5405:( 5212:. 5151:. 5058:. 4894:. 3855:. 3777:. 3726:( 3388:. 3342:. 3297:) 2814:. 2749:. 2732:. 1611:( 1125:) 449:( 113:( 48:(

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Women in ancient Rome

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