Wood fuel - Knowledge

487: 1417:, Estonia, with an expected output of 110,000 tons of pellet / year. Different types of wood will be used in the process of pellet making (firewood, woodchips, shavings). The Warmeston OÜ plant started its activity by the end of 2014. In 2013, the main pellet consumers in Europe were the UK, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, Germany and Belgium, as U.E.'s annual report on biofuels states. In Denmark and Sweden, pellets are used by power plants, households and medium scale consumers for district heating, compared to Austria and Italy, where pellets are mainly used as small - scale private residential and industrial boilers for heating. The UK is the single largest consuming market for industrial wood pellets, in large part due to its major biomass-fueled power stations such as 4210: 1467: 261: 680:

boilers emit more wood smoke and associated pollutants than other wood-burning appliances. This is due to design characteristics such as the water-filled jacket surrounding the firebox, which acts to cool the fire and leads to incomplete combustion. Outdoor wood boilers also typically have short stack heights in comparison to other wood-burning appliances, contributing to ambient levels of particulates at ground level. An increasingly popular alternative is the wood gasification boiler, which burns wood at very high efficiencies (85-91%) and can be placed indoors or in an outbuilding.

1284: 353: 904: 4238: 122: 1109:. However, in many countries, for example in Europe and Canada, the forest residues are being collected and turned into useful wood fuels with minimal impact on the environment. Consideration is given to soil nutrition as well as erosion. The environmental impact of using wood as a fuel depends on how it is burnt. Higher temperatures result in more complete combustion and less noxious gases as a result of pyrolysis. Some may regard the burning of wood from a sustainable source as 441:

designs to the edge, with cast ornaments, feet and doors. Wood or coal could be burnt in the stoves and thus they were popular for over one hundred years. The action of the fire, combined with the causticity of the ash, ensured that the stove would eventually disintegrate or crack over time. Thus a steady supply of stoves was needed. The maintenance of stoves, needing to be blacked, their smokiness, and the need to split wood meant that oil or electric heat found favour.

727:, 128 ft (3.62 m), corresponding to a woodpile 8 ft wide × 4 ft high of 4 ft-long logs. The cord is legally defined by statute in most U.S. states. A "thrown cord" is firewood that has not been stacked and is defined as 4 ft wide × 4 ft tall × 10 ft long. The additional volume is to make it equivalent to a standard stacked cord, where there is less void space. It is also common to see wood sold by the "face cord", which is usually 5024: 4278: 2842: 4196: 250: 697: 4288: 1044: 548: 25: 4266: 4224: 298:'s "Sylva, or a discourse on forest trees" (1664) advising landowners on the proper management of forest estates. H. L. Edlin, in "Woodland Crafts in Britain", 1949 outlines the extraordinary techniques employed, and range of wood products that have been produced from these managed forests since pre-Roman times. And throughout this time the preferred form of wood fuel was the branches of cut coppice stems bundled into 5046: 4182: 430: 649: 5034: 1336: 4252: 818: 1243: 892:, which can be an irritating (and potentially dangerous) by-product of partially burnt wood fuel. A major component of wood smoke is fine particles that may account for a large portion of particulate air pollution in some regions. During cooler months, wood heating accounts for as much as 60% of fine particles in 1136:. Thus, longer pieces - requiring less manual labor, and less chainsaw fuel - are less expensive and only limited by the size of their firebox. Prices also vary considerably with the distance from wood lots, and quality of the wood. Firewood usually relates to timber or trees unsuitable for building or 1065:

The technique of compressing wood pulp into pellets or artificial logs can reduce emissions. The combustion is cleaner, and the increased wood density and reduced water content can eliminate some of the transport bulk. The fossil energy consumed in transport is reduced and represents a small fraction

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Some European countries produce a significant fraction of their electricity needs from wood or wood wastes. In Scandinavian countries the costs of manual labor to process firewood is very high. Therefore, it is common to import firewood from countries with cheap labor and natural resources. The main

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produced per megawatt-hour (MWh) of delivered energy. Scenario 33 for example, which concerns the production of heat from wood chips produced from UK small roundwood produced from bringing neglected broadleaf forests back into production, shows that burning oil releases 377 kg (831 lb) of

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legally defined, and varies from one area to another. For example, in one state a pile of wood 8 feet wide × 4 feet high of 16 inch-long logs will often be sold as a "face cord", though its volume is only one-third of a cord. In another state, or even another area of the same state, the volume of a

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The mess of wood, bark, smoke, and ashes is kept outside and the risk of fire is reduced. The boilers are large enough to hold a fire all night and can burn larger pieces of wood, thus less cutting and splitting is required. There is no need to retrofit a chimney in the house. However, outdoor wood

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policy during that era. Demand for timber resources was on the rise not only for fuel, but also for construction of ships and buildings, and consequently deforestation was widespread. As a result, forest fires occurred, along with floods and soil erosion. Around 1666, the shōgun made it a policy to

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Wood has been used as fuel for millennia. Historically, it was limited in use only by the distribution of technology required to make a spark. Heat derived from wood is still common throughout much of the world. Early examples included a fire constructed inside a tent. Fires were constructed on the

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The 1800s became the high point of the cast iron stove. Each local foundry would make their own design, and stoves were built for myriads of purposes—parlour stoves, box stoves, camp stoves, railroad stoves, portable stoves, cooking stoves and so on. Elaborate nickel and chrome edged models took

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In contrast to civilizations in relatively arid regions (such as Mesopotamia and Egypt), the Greeks, Romans, Celts, Britons, and Gauls all had access to forests suitable for using as fuel. Over the centuries there was a partial deforestation of climax forests and the evolution of the remainder to

390:. Stoves were manufactured or constructed pieces of equipment that contained the fire on all sides and provided a means for controlling the draft—the amount of air allowed to reach the fire. Stoves have been made of a variety of materials. Cast iron is among the more common. Soapstone ( 1229:

Wood burning advocates claim that properly harvested wood is carbon-neutral, therefore off-setting the negative impact of by-product particles given off during the burning process. In the context of forest wildfires, wood removed from the forest setting for use as wood fuel can reduce overall

507:, a thermostatically controlled stove with an optional perforated steel enclosure that prevented accidental contact with hot surfaces. The decade also saw a number of dual-fuel furnaces and boilers made, which utilized ductwork and piping to deliver heat throughout a house or other building. 1225:

The environmental impact of burning wood fuel is debatable. Several cities have moved towards setting standards of use and/or bans of wood burning fireplaces. For example, the city of Montréal, Québec passed a resolution to ban wood fireplace installation in new construction.

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In some of the most efficient burners, the temperature of the smoke is hot enough to burn itself (e.g. 609 °C (1,128 °F) for igniting carbon monoxide gas). This may significantly reduce smoke hazards while also providing additional heat from the process. By using a

1726: 668:. Wood heat continues to be used in areas where firewood is abundant. For serious attempts at heating, rather than mere ambience (open fireplaces), stoves, fireplace inserts, and furnaces are most commonly used today. In rural, forested parts of the U.S., freestanding 1307:

Many lower- and middle-income countries rely on wood for energy purposes (notably cooking). The largest producers are all in these income groups and have large populations with a high reliance on wood for energy: in 2021, India ranked first with 300 million

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As with most of Europe, these managed woodlands continued to supply their markets right up to the end of World War Two. Since then much of these woodlands have been converted to broadscale agriculture. Total demand for fuel increased considerably with the

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and heat it before releasing it out the sides. The heat exchanger was never a popular feature and was omitted in later versions. So-called "Franklin" stoves today are made in a great variety of styles, though none resembles the original design.

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are both growing markets for industrial wood pellets, and as of 2017, were expected to become the second and third largest global markets for wood pellets due to government policies favoring the use of biomass in power generation.

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There are numerous ways to process wood fuel, and wood is still used today for cooking in many places, either in a stove or an open fire. It is also used as a fuel in many industrial processes, including smoking meat and making

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per MWh of delivered energy. However, in scenario 32 of that same reference, which concerns the production of heat from wood chips that would otherwise be made into particleboard, showed that only 239 kg (527 lb) of

1062:. The conditions in which wood is burnt will greatly influence the content of the emission. Particulate air pollution can contribute to human health problems and increased hospital admissions for asthma & heart diseases. 1920:

Ray, James, "Wood Usage in Rural Tanzania: An Investigation into the Sources and Accessibility of Fuelwood and Polewood for the Residents of Kizanda Village, West Usambara Mountains" (2011). ISP Collection. Paper 984.

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than biodegradation of wood in a forest (in a given period) because by the time the bark of a dead tree has rotted, the log has already been occupied by other plants and micro-organisms which continue to sequester the

1097:. The collection or harvesting of this wood can have serious environmental implications for the collection area. The concerns are often specific to the particular area, but can include all the problems that regular 502:

would become so expensive as to preclude their use. A period of innovation followed, with many small manufacturers producing stoves based on designs old and new. Notable innovations from that era include the

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Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Yunus, Siti S. M.; Hewitt, C. Nicholas; Nemitz, Eiko; Mandal, Tuhin K.; Gadi, Ranu; Sahu, Lokesh K. (2021-02-25).

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for the purpose of burning wood is regarded as one of humanity's most important advances. The use of wood as a fuel source for heating is much older than civilization and is assumed to have been used by

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Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Farren, Naomi J.; Hopkins, James R.; Ward, Martyn W.; Swift, Stefan J.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu (2021-02-18).

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provided the consumption rate is controlled to sustainable levels. The shortage of suitable firewood in some places has seen local populations damaging huge tracts of bush possibly leading to further

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Stewart, Gareth J.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Nelson, Beth S.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu; Ahlawat, Sakshi; Yadav, Lokesh; Sharma, Sudhir K. (2021-02-18).

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was not a major consumer of industrial wood pellets as of 2017, but has relatively aggressive de-carbonization policies and may become a significant consumer of industrial wood pellets by the 2020s.

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Smith, K.R.; Khalil, M.A.K.; Rasmussen, R.A.; Thorneloe, S.A.; Manegdeg, F.; Apte, M. (1993). "Greenhouse gases from biomass and fossil fuel stoves in developing countries: A Manila pilot study".

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About 1.5 million households in Australia use firewood as the main form of domestic heating. As of 1995, approximately 1.85 million cubic metres of firewood (1m³ equals approximately one car

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The growth in popularity of wood heat also led to the development and marketing of a greater variety of equipment for cutting, splitting and processing firewood. Consumer grade hydraulic

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The Sustainable Energy Development Office (SEDO), part of the Government of Western Australia states that the energy content of wood is 16.2 megajoules per kilogram (4.5 kWh/kg).

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emissions by decreasing the quantity of open burned wood and the severity of the burn while combusting the remaining material under regulated conditions. On March 7, 2018, the

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woodland as the primary source of wood fuel. These woodlands involved a continuous cycle of new stems harvested from old stumps, on rotations between seven and thirty years.

156:. The particular form used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality and application. In many areas, wood is the most easily available form of fuel, requiring no 448:, originally made of steel, allowed greater control of combustion, being more tightly fitted than other stoves of the day. Airtight stoves became common in the 19th century. 283:

were constructed or established—surfaces of stone or another noncombustible material upon which a fire could be built. Smoke escaped through a smoke hole in the roof.

1035:, the temperature for obtaining cleaner smoke can be reduced. Some U.S. jurisdictions prohibit sale or installation of stoves that do not incorporate catalytic converters. 3825: 1902:

Manomet Center for Conservation Science. 2010. Biomass sustainability and Carbon Policy Study: Report to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources.

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as well as an important technique to improve soil conditions for agriculture, particularly in heavily forested regions. It forms the basis of the rich soils known as

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face cord may be considerably different. Hence, it is risky to buy wood sold in this manner, as the transaction is not based on a legally enforceable unit of measure.

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or stoves went a step further by capturing much of the heat of the fire and exhaust in a large thermal mass, becoming much more efficient than a fireplace alone.

1128:. Standing dead timber is considered better still, as it is both seasoned, and has less rot. Harvesting this form of timber reduces the speed and intensity of 3596: 1188:) has published a comprehensive model comparing the burning of wood (wood chip) and other fuels, based on 33 scenarios. The model's output is kilogram of CO 843:, burning wood fuel creates numerous by-products, some of which may be useful (heat and steam), and others that are undesirable, irritating or dangerous. 801:, the energy content of wood is more closely related to its moisture content than its species. The energy content improves as moisture content decreases. 688:. As a sustainable energy source, wood fuel also remains viable for generating electricity in areas with easy access to forest products and by-products. 1748:"Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India" 534:

The magazine "Wood Burning Quarterly" was published for several years before changing its name to "Home Energy Digest" and, subsequently, disappearing.

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Use of wood heat declined in popularity with the growing availability of other, less labor-intensive fuels. Wood heat was gradually replaced by

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Depending on population density, topography, climatic conditions and combustion equipment used, wood heating may substantially contribute to

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passed a bill that would delay for three years the implementation of more stringent emission standards for new residential wood heaters.

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by integrating the hydrocarbons of the wood into their life cycle. Wood harvesting and transport operations produce varying degrees of

920: 1400:, in the Southwest of Western Australia. It generates a greater heat than most other available woods and is usually sold by the tonne. 3202: 2724: 1667:(includes a range of calculators, including one for calculating the energy content of wood, taking into account the moisture content) 2073: 1699: 1377:(the Mid-Murray Forest Management Area, including the Barmah and Gunbower forests, provides about 80% of Victoria's red gum timber). 1979: 1582: 616: 4324: 1185: 1206:

per MWh was released. Therefore, the relative greenhouse effects of biomass energy production are dependent on the usage model.

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A woman uses wood in a fireplace for heat. A newspaper headline before her tells of the community's lack of heating oil in 1973.

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pollution. Inefficient and incomplete combustion of wood can result in elevated levels of greenhouse gases other than CO

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used wood as fuel for the first time. The EPA provided information on clean stoves, which burned much more efficiently.

89: 3297: 3255: 1903: 61: 3529: 3509: 1551: 829: 635: 602: 108: 1300:, there is a growing interest in using wood waste as fuel for home and industrial heating, in the form of compacted 3283: 1838:"Emissions of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds from domestic fuels used in Delhi, India" 932: 1567: 4571: 3601: 3192: 1113:. A tree, over the course of its lifetime, absorbs as much carbon (or carbon dioxide) as it releases when burnt. 1012: 336:, could authorize the use of wood. By the 18th century, Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about 68: 584: 5049: 5038: 4186: 1209:

The intentional and controlled charring of wood and its incorporation into the soil is an effective method for

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Diamond, Jared. 2005 Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Penguin Books. New York. 294–304 pp.

1120:" managed for that purpose, but in heavily wooded areas it is more often harvested as a byproduct of natural 2476: 1885: 524: 406:, since the hottest part of a woodburning fire will burn away steel over the course of several years' use. 160:

in the case of picking up dead wood, or few tools, although as in any industry, specialized tools, such as

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published a method for producing kiln dried firewood, on the basis that better heat output and increased

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to produce electricity or domestic heating, the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change (

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releases organic components over a wide volatility range. Here the organic components emitted from the

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are increasingly common. They are installed outdoors, some distance from the house, and connected to a

569: 302:. Larger, bent or deformed stems that were of no other use to the woodland craftsmen were converted to 42: 57: 4962: 4559: 3961: 3781: 3650: 3311: 2797: 2505: 1508: 1312:(15 percent of total production), followed by China with 156 million m3 and Brazil with 129 million m 1174: 940: 2675: 2174: 1956: 4927: 4866: 4367: 4100: 3786: 3394: 3359: 2972: 2964: 2908: 2771: 2744: 1366: 3736: 330:

reduce logging and increase the planting of trees. This policy decreed that only the shōgun, or a

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Environment Protection Authority (2002) Wood heaters, open fires and air quality. Publication 851

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of Japan, wood was used for many purposes, and the consumption of wood led Japan to develop a

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In 2014, the construction of the biggest pellet plant in the Baltic region was started in

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ground, and a smoke hole in the top of the tent allowed the smoke to escape by convection.

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have all been used. Metal stoves are often lined with refractory materials such as

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components over a range of volatilities, over effective saturation concentrations,

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Simpson, William T.; Boone, R. Sidney; Chern, Joseph; Mace, Terry (August 1987).

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In an attempt to provide quantitative information about the relative output of CO

1145: 1124:. Deadfall that has not started to rot is preferred, since it is already partly 903: 4922: 4901: 4896: 4881: 4772: 4576: 4228: 4152: 4147: 4080: 3988: 3976: 3941: 3899: 3847: 3842: 3766: 3684: 3576: 3419: 3409: 3103: 1513: 1324: 1166: 1023:, emissions from fuel wood were around 20 times more toxic than emissions from 881: 673: 520: 445: 418: 410: 376: 356: 2294: 1066:

of the fossil fuel consumed in producing and distributing heating oil or gas.

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are measured with a range of state-of-the art analytical techniques including

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World production of roundwood by type, comparison of wood fuel to other types

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In 2008, wood for fuel cost $ 15.15 per 1 million BTUs (0.041 EUR per kWh).

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and hydraulic wood splitters, have been developed to mechanize production.

149: 2253:"Global pellet market outlook in 2017 | Wood Pellet Association of Canada" 2004: 1414: 417:. More a manufactured fireplace than a stove, it had an open front and a 294:

One of the earliest printed books on woodland management, in English, was

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NRE 2002 Forest Management Plan for the Mid-Murray Forest Management Area

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is principally driven by residential and commercial heating customers.

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EPA's Wood Stove / Wood Heater Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

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A comprehensive and fully referenced list of potentially toxic woods.

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while burning woodchips releases 1,501 kg (3,309 lb) of CO

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In the United States and Canada, firewood is usually sold by the

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but most of this increased demand was met by the new fuel source

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area of India were shown to be 30 times more reactive with the

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A brief resurgence in popularity occurred during and after the

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World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023

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In the United States, wood fuel is the second-leading form of

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can be achieved with logs containing lower moisture content.

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wood is rarely used for firewood, as it is more valuable as

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were developed to be powered by electricity, gasoline, or

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McCarthy, James E.; Shouse, Kate C. (December 18, 2018).

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create. The heavy removal of wood from forests can cause

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proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry

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have been used for ages: fires are integral to humanity.

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World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023

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heating except in rural areas with available forests.

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http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/984

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was a technological development concurrent with the

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allowed for more effective exhaustion of the smoke.

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are traditional in Northern Europe: an 18th-century

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A common hardwood, red oak, has an energy content (

421:in the back that was designed to draw air from the 49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1740: 1738: 712:, firewood is normally sold by the cubic metre or 5062: 2303: 2012:. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service 1316:(8 percent and 7 percent of global production). 866:(lye). Wood ash can also be used to manufacture 2720:Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels 2297:All about the health effects of biomass burning 1735: 1474:work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 ( 735:In Australia, firewood is normally sold by the 172:also include various forms of lumber tailings. 2002: 1238:Potential use in renewable energy technologies 4318: 3249: 2872: 2373: 1362:Species used as sources of firewood include: 1220: 1039:Combustion by-product effects on human health 955:process, as well as organics formed from the 1470: This article incorporates text from a 1980:"Biomass Emission and Counterfactual Model" 4325: 4311: 3256: 3242: 2879: 2865: 2380: 2366: 1676: 1659:"Bioenergy Knowledge Centre's Calculators" 1564:"Clean Burning Wood Stoves and Fireplaces" 1394:that usually comes from small plantations. 858:), contributing minerals, but is strongly 691: 3203:Native American use of fire in ecosystems 2725:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage 1955: 1861: 1812: 1763: 1722: 1720: 812: 791:recoverable if burned at 70% efficiency. 676:in the house using underground piping. 636:Learn how and when to remove this message 238: 219:. Wood may be used indoors in a furnace, 109:Learn how and when to remove this message 1583:"Kiln-Drying Time of Split Oak Firewood" 1334: 1282: 1253:: it can be pelletized and used at home. 1241: 1156:Wood burning creates more atmospheric CO 1069: 1042: 995:*, from 10-10 μg m. The emissions from 902: 816: 807: 695: 647: 485: 428: 351: 347: 259: 248: 120: 2284:Himalayas. Unique way to store firewood 2133: 2094: 888:particulates, including caustic alkali 5063: 2167: 1717: 1705:from the original on 28 September 2011 1355:annually, with half being consumed in 1258:Efficient stove for developing nations 1232:United States House of Representatives 757:-load or bag (roughly 15–20 kg). 664:is an appliance that burns compressed 413:was developed in the United States by 279:In permanent structures and in caves, 4306: 3237: 2860: 2361: 2247: 2245: 2243: 2115: 2099:. Clean Air Society of Kapiti Coast. 2088: 1296:(Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia). In 5033: 2793:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization 1047:Wood-burning fireplace with burning 975:has also been shown to release many 574:adding citations to reliable sources 564:Relevant discussion may be found on 541: 47:adding citations to reliable sources 18: 5045: 4181: 2236:from the original on 8 August 2014. 2218: 2189:from the original on 8 August 2014. 2076:from the original on 8 January 2012 1679:Homeowners seek cheaper winter heat 1339:A pile of firewood logged from the 1151: 13: 2240: 2024: 1752:Environmental Science: Atmospheres 1629:"Electric Fireplace Costs Secrets" 929:two-dimensional gas chromatography 925:two-dimensional gas chromatography 846:One by-product of wood burning is 14: 5087: 4332: 3530:Global Forest Information Service 2272: 2226:"Main pellet consumers in Europe" 1842:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 1793:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 1626: 1292:exporters to Scandinavia are the 1011:. Furthermore, when comparing 21 850:, which in moderate amounts is a 760: 5044: 5032: 5023: 5022: 4286: 4277: 4276: 4264: 4250: 4236: 4222: 4208: 4194: 4180: 2886: 2841: 2840: 2232:. Fordaq S.A. 3 September 2013. 2185:. Fordaq S.A. 13 February 2014. 2129:from the original on 2012-12-31. 2103:from the original on 1 July 2011 1892:from the original on 2015-05-04. 1665:from the original on 2009-07-11. 1570:from the original on 2008-05-15. 1465: 1444: 1013:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 933:time-of-flight mass spectrometry 546: 168:waste and construction industry 23: 16:Wood used as fuel for combustion 4572:Oriented structural straw board 4287: 3193:Control of fire by early humans 2193: 2142: 2058: 1996: 1972: 1927: 1914: 1896: 1878: 1829: 1780: 1639:from the original on 7 May 2018 1116:Some firewood is harvested in " 557:needs additional citations for 207:, and occasionally for fueling 34:needs additional citations for 2066:"Renewables and CO2 Emissions" 1685: 1670: 1651: 1620: 1606: 1574: 1556: 1540: 799:The Bioenergy Knowledge Centre 523:of farm tractors. In 1987 the 363:stove at Łańcut Castle, Poland 188:of wood is the largest use of 1: 2387: 1534: 749:of a 1 m bucket of a typical 175:The discovery of how to make 3263: 2095:Matthew (26 December 2009). 1966:10.1016/0045-6535(93)90440-g 1886:"Fuel Ignition Temperatures" 1677:Ryan, Matt (June 20, 2008). 1476:license statement/permission 1449:Demand for wood fuel in the 1330: 1007:radical than emissions from 525:US Department of Agriculture 199:. Wood fuel can be used for 7: 2823:Issues relating to biofuels 2813:Energy return on investment 1633:electricfireplaceheater.org 1487: 999:samples collected from the 10: 5092: 4963:Non-timber forest products 4587:Structural insulated panel 3641:Growth and yield modelling 1460: 1221:Regulation and Legislation 1074:Much wood fuel comes from 987:has been shown to release 941:volatile organic compounds 939:Significant quantities of 498:, when some believed that 242: 227:, or outdoors in furnace, 5018: 4910: 4844: 4791: 4698: 4650: 4607: 4501: 4340: 4215:Earth sciences portal 4201:Climate change portal 4176: 4053: 3885: 3782:Great Green Wall (Africa) 3727: 3418: 3328: 3271: 3180: 3114: 3071: 3001: 2963: 2917: 2894: 2836: 2798:Energy content of biofuel 2780: 2712: 2628: 2519: 2395: 2070:Short-Term Energy Outlook 1404: 1175:Carbon dioxide equivalent 4928:Destructive distillation 3787:Great Green Wall (China) 3360:Close to nature forestry 2973:Autoignition temperature 2772:Thermal depolymerization 2745:Industrial biotechnology 1863:10.5194/acp-21-2407-2021 1814:10.5194/acp-21-2383-2021 1698:. Pergamon Press. 1993. 1681:. Burlington Free Press. 1384:, in southern Australia. 1278: 884:and other chemicals and 537: 510: 481: 4948:Green building and wood 3821:Million Tree Initiative 2988:Minimum ignition energy 2740:Fischer–Tropsch process 2730:Biomass heating systems 1888:. Engineering Toolbox. 1614:"Wood heat value (BTU)" 1478:). Text taken from 1428: 1025:liquefied petroleum gas 1009:liquefied petroleum gas 692:Measurement of firewood 666:wood or biomass pellets 367:The development of the 4592:Wood–plastic composite 4518:Glued laminated timber 4513:Cross-laminated timber 4243:Environment portal 3675:Sustainable management 3570:Trillion Tree Campaign 2125:. birdsaustralia.com. 1484:, FAO, FAO. 1344: 1288: 1254: 1051: 1015:emitted from the same 983:phase. The burning of 943:are released from the 936: 836: 813:Combustion by-products 705: 657: 491: 437: 433:Potbelly stove at the 364: 289:coppice with standards 272: 257: 239:Historical development 126: 4665:Corrugated fiberboard 4567:Oriented strand board 4168:Wood process engineer 3872:Urban forest inequity 2072:. US Dept of Energy. 1338: 1286: 1245: 1070:Harvesting operations 1046: 906: 820: 808:Environmental impacts 784:per pound), and 10.4 699: 651: 585:"sustainble forestry" 529:combustion efficiency 489: 474:, many people in the 432: 388:Industrial Revolution 355: 348:Fireplaces and stoves 312:Industrial Revolution 263: 252: 243:Further information: 124: 5050:WikiProject Forestry 3831:Shifting cultivation 3772:Forest fragmentation 3742:Carbon sequestration 3612:Woodland Carbon Code 3577:Forest certification 3485:Even-aged management 3400:Sustainable forestry 1616:. daviddarling.info. 1509:Outdoor wood furnace 1382:Messmate Stringybark 1211:carbon sequestration 570:improve this article 435:Museum of Appalachia 217:generate electricity 136:) is a fuel such as 43:improve this article 4811:Ramial chipped wood 3636:Formally designated 3480:Ecological thinning 3390:Plantation forestry 3298:Research institutes 3014:Solar Spark Lighter 2828:Sustainable biofuel 2154:www.regional.org.au 2036:. FAO. 2023-11-29. 1948:1993Chmsp..26..479S 1854:2021ACP....21.2407S 1805:2021ACP....21.2383S 1390:, a wood with high 1103:habitat destruction 1033:catalytic converter 979:compounds into the 967:and furanones. The 963:such as phenolics, 864:potassium hydroxide 271:and other processes 4728:Cellulosic ethanol 4229:Ecology portal 3762:Forest degradation 3757:Ecosystem services 3365:Community forestry 1908:2018-01-08 at the 1765:10.1039/D0EA00009D 1392:thermal efficiency 1351:load) was used in 1345: 1289: 1255: 1142:renewable resource 1081:around the world. 1052: 937: 837: 828:after a wildfire, 706: 658: 496:1973 energy crisis 492: 438: 365: 273: 258: 127: 5058: 5057: 4993:Wood preservation 4938:Engineered bamboo 4758:Pyroligneous acid 4300: 4299: 4257:Plants portal 4043:green woodworking 3231: 3230: 2854: 2853: 2767:Sabatier reaction 2356: 2355: 2308:Fuels for heating 2179:] in Estonia" 2051:978-92-5-138262-2 1269:can be pelletized 646: 645: 638: 620: 415:Benjamin Franklin 327:forest management 119: 118: 111: 93: 5083: 5048: 5047: 5036: 5035: 5026: 5025: 4983:Timber recycling 4978:Reclaimed lumber 4968:Natural building 4933:Dry distillation 4887:Split-rail fence 4327: 4320: 4313: 4304: 4303: 4290: 4289: 4280: 4279: 4271:Trees portal 4269: 4268: 4255: 4254: 4241: 4240: 4227: 4226: 4225: 4213: 4212: 4211: 4199: 4198: 4197: 4184: 4183: 3905:Forest gardening 3862:Timber recycling 3809:Invasive species 3697:Tree measurement 3258: 3251: 3244: 3235: 3234: 3181:Related articles 2881: 2874: 2867: 2858: 2857: 2844: 2843: 2688:Pongamia pinnata 2382: 2375: 2368: 2359: 2358: 2304: 2289:Toxic Woods List 2267: 2266: 2264: 2263: 2249: 2238: 2237: 2222: 2216: 2215: 2213: 2211: 2205:www.warmeston.ee 2197: 2191: 2190: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2162: 2161: 2146: 2140: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2092: 2086: 2085: 2083: 2081: 2062: 2056: 2055: 2042:10.4060/cc8166en 2028: 2022: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2011: 2000: 1994: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1984: 1976: 1970: 1969: 1959: 1942:(1–4): 479–505. 1931: 1925: 1918: 1912: 1900: 1894: 1893: 1882: 1876: 1875: 1865: 1848:(4): 2407–2426. 1833: 1827: 1826: 1816: 1799:(4): 2383–2406. 1784: 1778: 1777: 1767: 1742: 1733: 1724: 1715: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1704: 1697: 1689: 1683: 1682: 1674: 1668: 1666: 1655: 1649: 1648: 1646: 1644: 1627:Weihe, Wilfred. 1624: 1618: 1617: 1610: 1604: 1603: 1601: 1600: 1594: 1588:. Archived from 1587: 1578: 1572: 1571: 1560: 1554: 1544: 1469: 1321:renewable energy 1294:Baltic countries 1249:create and burn 1152:Greenhouse gases 1140:. Firewood is a 957:depolymerisation 748: 747: 743: 641: 634: 630: 627: 621: 619: 578: 550: 542: 472:1967 Oil Embargo 114: 107: 103: 100: 94: 92: 51: 27: 19: 5091: 5090: 5086: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5081: 5080: 5061: 5060: 5059: 5054: 5014: 4998:Wood processing 4906: 4840: 4787: 4694: 4646: 4603: 4533:parallel strand 4504: 4497: 4345: 4336: 4331: 4301: 4296: 4263: 4249: 4235: 4223: 4221: 4209: 4207: 4195: 4193: 4172: 4049: 4026:spruce-pine-fir 3999:Christmas trees 3881: 3797:Illegal logging 3729: 3723: 3438:Controlled burn 3423: 3414: 3395:Social forestry 3375:Energy forestry 3355:Bamboo forestry 3350:Analog forestry 3324: 3267: 3262: 3232: 3227: 3223:Survival skills 3208:Outdoor cooking 3176: 3115:Other equipment 3110: 3072:Modern starters 3067: 2997: 2959: 2913: 2890: 2885: 2855: 2850: 2832: 2808:Energy forestry 2776: 2708: 2670:Jatropha curcas 2631: 2624: 2532:Camelina sativa 2522: 2515: 2391: 2386: 2352: 2275: 2270: 2261: 2259: 2251: 2250: 2241: 2224: 2223: 2219: 2209: 2207: 2199: 2198: 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3016: 3005: 3003: 3002:Early starters 2999: 2998: 2996: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2969: 2967: 2961: 2960: 2958: 2957: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2914: 2912: 2911: 2906: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2891: 2884: 2883: 2876: 2869: 2861: 2852: 2851: 2849: 2848: 2837: 2834: 2833: 2831: 2830: 2825: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2784: 2782: 2778: 2777: 2775: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2763: 2762: 2757: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2722: 2716: 2714: 2710: 2709: 2707: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2684: 2673: 2666: 2661: 2659:Chinese tallow 2656: 2649: 2644: 2636: 2634: 2626: 2625: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2535: 2527: 2525: 2517: 2516: 2514: 2513: 2508: 2506:Water hyacinth 2503: 2498: 2497: 2496: 2486: 2481: 2480: 2479: 2474: 2464: 2463: 2462: 2452: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2407: 2401: 2399: 2393: 2392: 2385: 2384: 2377: 2370: 2362: 2354: 2353: 2351: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2314: 2311: 2310: 2302: 2301: 2298: 2292: 2286: 2281: 2279:Firewood Facts 2274: 2273:External links 2271: 2269: 2268: 2257:www.pellet.org 2239: 2217: 2192: 2166: 2141: 2132: 2114: 2087: 2057: 2050: 2023: 1995: 1971: 1926: 1913: 1895: 1877: 1828: 1779: 1758:(2): 104–117. 1734: 1716: 1684: 1669: 1650: 1619: 1605: 1573: 1555: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1532: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1516: 1514:Renewable heat 1511: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1489: 1486: 1462: 1459: 1446: 1443: 1430: 1427: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1401: 1395: 1385: 1378: 1332: 1329: 1325:hydro-electric 1280: 1277: 1276: 1275: 1270: 1264: 1259: 1239: 1236: 1222: 1219: 1203: 1198: 1194: 1189: 1181: 1170: 1167:greenhouse gas 1162: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1111:carbon-neutral 1071: 1068: 1040: 1037: 882:carbon dioxide 814: 811: 809: 806: 762: 761:Energy content 759: 693: 690: 674:heat exchanger 644: 643: 568:. Please help 566:Talk:Wood fuel 554: 552: 545: 539: 536: 512: 509: 483: 480: 446:airtight stove 419:heat exchanger 411:Franklin stove 357:Ceramic stoves 349: 346: 240: 237: 117: 116: 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5088: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5068: 5066: 5051: 5043: 5041: 5040: 5031: 5029: 5021: 5020: 5017: 5011: 5010: 5006: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4953:List of woods 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4909: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4862:Billet (wood) 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4843: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4790: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4723:Hemicellulose 4721: 4717: 4714: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4703: 4701: 4697: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4653: 4649: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4621: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4613: 4612: 4610: 4606: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4547: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4510: 4508: 4506: 4500: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4448:Railroad ties 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4350: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4334:Wood products 4328: 4323: 4321: 4316: 4314: 4309: 4308: 4305: 4293: 4285: 4283: 4275: 4273: 4272: 4267: 4261: 4259: 4258: 4253: 4247: 4245: 4244: 4239: 4233: 4231: 4230: 4219: 4217: 4216: 4205: 4203: 4202: 4191: 4189: 4188: 4179: 4178: 4175: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4148:Rubber tapper 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4093: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4076:Choker setter 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4056: 4052: 4044: 4041: 4040: 4039: 4036: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4008: 4007: 4004: 4000: 3997: 3996: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3944: 3943: 3940: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3917: 3916: 3915:Manufacturing 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3884: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3856: 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3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3445: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3433:Arboriculture 3431: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3396: 3393: 3391: 3388: 3386: 3385:Permaforestry 3383: 3381: 3378: 3376: 3373: 3371: 3368: 3366: 3363: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3343: 3339: 3338: 3337: 3334: 3333: 3331: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3316: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3307: 3306: 3302: 3300: 3299: 3295: 3293: 3292: 3288: 3286: 3285: 3281: 3279: 3278: 3274: 3273: 3270: 3266: 3259: 3254: 3252: 3247: 3245: 3240: 3239: 3236: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3216: 3214: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3204: 3201: 3199: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3189: 3186: 3185: 3183: 3179: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3163: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3132:Feather stick 3130: 3128: 3125: 3123: 3120: 3119: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3096: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3023: 3022: 3019: 3015: 3012: 3011: 3010: 3009:Burning glass 3007: 3006: 3004: 3000: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2983:Friction fire 2981: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2938: 2936: 2933: 2931: 2930:Fire triangle 2928: 2926: 2923: 2922: 2920: 2916: 2910: 2907: 2905: 2902: 2900: 2897: 2896: 2893: 2889: 2882: 2877: 2875: 2870: 2868: 2863: 2862: 2859: 2847: 2839: 2838: 2835: 2829: 2826: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2818:Food vs. fuel 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2785: 2783: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2751: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2721: 2718: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2705: 2702: 2700: 2697: 2695: 2692: 2690: 2689: 2685: 2683: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2672: 2671: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2654: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2627: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 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2039: 2035: 2034: 2027: 2008: 2007: 1999: 1983:(spreadsheet) 1981: 1975: 1967: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1930: 1924: 1917: 1911: 1907: 1904: 1899: 1891: 1887: 1881: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1832: 1824: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1783: 1775: 1771: 1766: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1741: 1739: 1731: 1728: 1723: 1721: 1701: 1694: 1688: 1680: 1673: 1664: 1661:. bkc.co.nz. 1660: 1654: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1623: 1615: 1609: 1595:on 2014-12-22 1591: 1584: 1577: 1569: 1565: 1559: 1553: 1552:0-14-303655-6 1549: 1543: 1539: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1505: 1502: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1492: 1491: 1485: 1483: 1482: 1477: 1473: 1468: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1451:United States 1445:North America 1442: 1439: 1435: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1389: 1386: 1383: 1379: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1342: 1341:Barmah Forest 1337: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1305: 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567: 561: 560: 555:This section 553: 549: 544: 543: 535: 532: 530: 526: 522: 518: 517:log splitters 508: 506: 505:Ashley heater 501: 497: 488: 479: 477: 476:United States 473: 468: 466: 462: 458: 455:and later by 454: 449: 447: 442: 436: 431: 427: 424: 420: 416: 412: 407: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 380: 378: 374: 370: 362: 358: 354: 345: 343: 339: 335: 334: 328: 324: 319: 317: 313: 307: 305: 301: 297: 292: 290: 284: 282: 277: 270: 266: 262: 255: 251: 246: 236: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 209:steam engines 206: 202: 198: 195: 191: 187: 183: 178: 173: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 123: 113: 110: 102: 99:December 2021 91: 88: 84: 81: 77: 74: 70: 67: 63: 60: – 59: 55: 54:Find sources: 48: 44: 38: 37: 32:This article 30: 26: 21: 20: 5037: 5007: 4902:Wooden masts 4872:Dugout canoe 4857:Bavin (wood) 4806:Black liquor 4743:Liquid smoke 4641: 4493:Utility pole 4478:Timber truss 4398:Log building 4262: 4248: 4234: 4220: 4206: 4192: 4185: 4163:Tree planter 4143:Resin tapper 4123:Truck driver 4118:River driver 4015: 3867:Tree hugging 3852: 3835: 3802:timber mafia 3792:High grading 3777:Ghost forest 3747:Clearcutting 3670:Silviculture 3646:Horticulture 3490:Fire ecology 3405:Urban forest 3380:Mycoforestry 3340: 3336:Agroforestry 3317: 3310: 3303: 3296: 3289: 3284:Forest areas 3282: 3275: 3198:Firem'n Chit 3058:Fire striker 2954: 2888:Firelighting 2703: 2686: 2680: 2676: 2668: 2651: 2647:Big bluestem 2639: 2632:energy crops 2587: 2530: 2342: 2307: 2260:. 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Today, 130:Wood fuel 5076:Firewood 5028:Category 5009:Yakisugi 4943:Forestry 4911:See also 4852:Axe ties 4821:Tall oil 4801:Barkdust 4783:Wood gas 4763:Pine tar 4753:Methanol 4685:Pulpwood 4632:Firewood 4615:Charcoal 4608:Fuelwood 4555:Masonite 4483:Treenail 4383:Flooring 4282:Category 4096:handcrew 4066:Arborist 4061:Forester 4021:mahogany 3967:palm oil 3957:charcoal 3942:Products 3877:Wildfire 3690:breeding 3651:GM trees 3500:dynamics 3312:Journals 3305:Colleges 3265:Forestry 3157:Matchbox 3142:Fire pit 3137:Fire pan 3104:Electric 3053:Fire-saw 2950:Wood ash 2935:Firewood 2909:Glossary 2899:Campfire 2846:Category 2781:Concepts 2664:Duckweed 2653:Camelina 2630:Non-food 2578:Rapeseed 2568:Palm oil 2511:Wood gas 2484:Methanol 2477:mixtures 2397:Biofuels 2328:Kerosene 2234:Archived 2187:Archived 2127:Archived 2101:Archived 2074:Archived 1988:25 March 1906:Archived 1890:Archived 1700:Archived 1663:Archived 1637:Archived 1568:Archived 1529:Wood gas 1504:Forestry 1488:See also 1380:Box and 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826:chimney 780:(6,388 744:⁄ 708:In the 670:boilers 610:scholar 465:propane 369:chimney 361:faience 300:faggots 281:hearths 233:bonfire 205:heating 201:cooking 197:biomass 186:burning 166:Sawmill 154:sawdust 150:pellets 83:scholar 4877:Potash 4778:Tannin 4738:Lignin 4652:Fibers 4597:lumber 4523:veneer 4463:Siding 4443:Rafter 4438:Purlin 4353:Batten 4346:timber 4342:Lumber 4138:Ranger 4086:Feller 4071:Bucker 3977:rubber 3920:lumber 3730:topics 3717:volume 3712:height 3658:i-Tree 3495:Forest 3448:coarse 3443:Debris 3342:dehesa 2965:Topics 2945:Tinder 2641:Arundo 2573:Potato 2489:Stover 2435:Biogas 2156:. 2012 2048: 1954: 1870: 1821: 1772: 1550: 1455:Canada 1405:Europe 1398:Jarrah 1087:timber 1076:native 965:furans 961:lignin 856:potash 789:joules 774:joules 612: 605: 598: 591: 583: 423:cellar 398:, and 333:daimyō 190:energy 152:, and 85: 78: 71: 64: 56: 4958:Mulch 4768:Pitch 4690:Rayon 4670:Paper 4488:Truss 4428:Plate 4423:Plank 4388:Joist 4373:Cruck 3972:rayon 3707:girth 3702:crown 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