924:
Republic of Poland violated the constitution of 22 July 1952 in force at that time, because the matters of ratification and termination of international agreements belonged to the competence of the
Council of State, not the Council of Ministers". Also, the report noted that according to the minutes of the Council of Ministers of 19 August 1953, the renunciation concerned only the German Democratic Republic not the Federal Republic, and that no diplomatic note was ever sent to the East German government officially informing it of Poland's decision. On September 14, 2022, the Sejm passed (418 for, 4 against, 15 abstentions) a resolution stating that: "The Polish state has never renounced its claims against the German state; the Sejm of the Republic of Poland calls on the German government to assume political, historical, legal, and financial responsibility for all the effects caused by the unleashing of World War II."
306:
456:
513:
211:
268:
230:
249:
362:
945:
475:
437:
494:
418:
380:
287:
192:
399:
343:
2489:"The diplomatic note that I have just initialled will be forwarded to the Foreign Ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany," Rau said. - It expresses the conviction of the Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs that the parties should take immediate action aimed at a permanent, comprehensive and final, legal and material settlement of the issue of the consequences of the Aggression and German Occupation during the years 1939-1945."
916:, which had the sole authority to undertake such a decision. According to Józef Menes from the Council of the Polish War Loss Institute, no diplomatic note was presented to the East German government and that "Probably the meeting of the Council of Ministers of August 23, 1953 did not take place at all" - citing relation of Kazimierz Mijal (head of the office of the Council of Ministers from 21 November 1952 to 1 February 1956).
566:
533:
324:
2400:"The report states that 'the alleged unilateral statement of the Council of Ministers of 23 August 1953 on the renunciation of war reparations by the People's Republic of Poland violated the constitution of 22 July 1952 in force at that time, because the matters of ratification and termination of international agreements belonged to the competence of the Council of State, not the Council of Ministers.'"
25:
843:) passed a resolution stating that: "The Sejm of the Republic of Poland, aware of the role of historical truth and elementary justice in Polish-German relations states that Poland has not yet received adequate financial compensation and war reparations for the enormous destruction and material losses caused by German aggression, occupation and genocide." A month later, on 19 October 2004 the Polish
936:. According to the German government, there is no legal basis for further compensation payments. On 4 January 2023 the deputy minister of foreign affairs of Poland Arkadiusz Mularczyk stated that "We do not recognize this German position, we reject it in its entirety as absolutely unfounded and erroneous." and "the German state cannot close a case that has never (yet) been opened".
1775:
share for reparation payments. The declaration by the Polish
Government stated that Germany had already paid substantial reparations and that the Polish Government therefore renounced all claims, in order to contribute to a peaceful solution of the German question. The waiver was explicitly confirmed in the negotiations between the two states on the Warsaw Treaty.
166:(IARA). The distribution of the reparations from Germany was to be allotted by a pre-determined percentage to which the victor powers agreed to. German reparations were to be classified into two categories: A (all forms of German reparations except those included in Category B) and B (industrial and capital equipment, merchant ships, and inland water transports).
964:. Other sources put the total number of deaths resulting from the Axis occupation at 273,000 to 747,000 Greeks, or 3.7-10.2% of the prewar population. The occupying Nazi regime forced Greece to pay the cost of the occupation in the country and requisite raw materials and food for the occupation forces, creating the conditions for the
683:
2.5 billion dollars were confiscated. The remaining German industries had to give up a share of their production to the Allies. Large shipments of steel, coal, but also other industrial products were seized and transported out of the country. Later the
Western Allies softened their stance in favour of the
1774:
When the Warsaw Treaty was signed, Poland and the Soviet Union had waived all claims for reparations against
Germany as a whole by a declaration of August 23, 1953. This waiver was based upon the agreement at the Potsdam Conference that Polish claims for reparations were to be satisfied by the Soviet
923:
in Warsaw. The three volume report also covered the legal issues regarding the 1953 renunciation of reparation rights by Poland, and according to the report findings: "the alleged unilateral statement of the
Council of Ministers of 23 August 1953 on the renunciation of war reparations by the People's
896:
jointly paid compensation to surviving Polish, non-Jewish victims of slave labour in Nazi
Germany and also to Polish orphans and children who had been subject to forced labour. The Swiss Fund for the Victims of the Holocaust (which had obtained settlement money from banks in Switzerland) used some of
1809:
On 19 October 2004, the Polish
Council of Ministers issued a statement clarifying: "The Government of the Republic of Poland recognises as obligatory the declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of Poland on 19 October to abandon Polish reparations payments (...). The Declaration of 23
1192:
Japan paid its reparations similar to
Germany through dismantling of industrial equipment, delivery of raw materials and confiscation of industrial output. Only minor payments were made to other Asian countries, specifically to Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Philippines, South Korea, Vietnam, and
778:
After World War II ended, the main four Allied powers – Great
Britain, The United States, France, and the Soviet Union – jointly occupied Germany, with the Allied occupation officially ending in the 1950s. During this time, Germany was held accountable for the Allied occupation's expenses, amounting
2143:
The rights of the four powers with regard to
Germany were relinquished - the parties to the agreement recognized the effects of the Second World War as finally closed. Logically speaking, this also presupposes that the powers (including the USSR) have recognized that Germany has met its reparations
1006:
of the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union. This treaty was supposed to close all open questions regarding Germany and the aftermath of WWII and paved the way for German reunification. Germany considers this treaty as the final regulation which concludes the question of open
546:
concluded the Polish-Soviet Reparation Treaty on 16 August 1945. The treaty allocated Poland's share of confiscated German machinery, goods and raw materials. Furthermore Poland received 15% of the German merchant fleet acquired by the Soviet Union. Deliveries were overseen by a joint Polish-Soviet
975:
After the war, Greece received its share of the reparations paid by Germany to the Allies as part of the proceedings of the Paris Reparation Treaty of 1946 which the Inter-Allied Reparations Agency enforced. 7.181 billion dollars were initially slated for Greece. This sum rose significantly due to
871:
In the meantime, Poland and Germany concluded several treaties and agreements to compensate Polish persons who were victims of German aggression. In 1972, West Germany paid compensation to Poles that had survived pseudo-medical experiments during their imprisonment in various Nazi camps during the
682:
At the beginning of the occupation, the Allies dismantled the remnants of German industries. Plants and machinery were dismantled, the railroad system deconstructed and everything was transported to the Allies. The German merchant fleet and all other ships were handed over. Foreign stocks of about
122:
to the Allies. The Allied demands were further outlined during the Potsdam Conference. Reparations were to be directly paid to the four victor powers (France, United Kingdom, United States, and the Soviet Union); for the countries in the Soviet sphere of influence, the Soviet Union would determine
1901:
The fall 2004 Sejm call for war reparations elicted firm opposition from the two governments. Polish foreign minister Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz labelled the resolution "unreasonable" and Germany's foreign ministry "reject all demands concerning compensation." The Polish government shared the German
2061:
The Polish government clarified in a statement on October 19, 2004: "The Declaration of 23 August 1953 was adopted in accordance with the constitutional order of the time, in compliance with international law established in the UN Charter", a position that was confirmed in a written statement in
1145:
in the form of machinery (entire factories were dismantled and shipped to the Soviet Union) as well as food, industrial products, and consumer goods. The USSR was owed $ 100 million from Italy, $ 300 million from Finland, $ 200 million from Hungary, and $ 300 million from Romania, amounting to
821:
note, dated 24 November 1969, the communist government of Poland demanded action from the organization not only to punish war criminals and those who have committed crimes against humanity but also to establish procedures and divisibility of compensation for war crimes and damages committed by
1188:
had to pay reparations worth about 300 million USD each, mostly paid in natural goods. Bulgaria had to pay reparations worth about 70 million USD. Most of these reparations were not paid in full by the countries which later fell under the umbrella of the Soviet Union, because the Soviet Union
613:
were incorporated into communist Poland and the Soviet Union respectively and resettled with citizens of these countries, pending a final peace conference with Germany. Since a peace conference never took place, the areas were effectively ceded by Germany. In the case of Poland, the acquired
1870:
It seems that even if the binding force of the 1953 declaration were to be questioned, it would be difficult to support the thesis that Poland has a rightful claim to reparations from Germany. The renunciation of such claims was confirmed by the Polish deputy minister of foreign affairs, J.
904:. Since then, the Polish government has taken the position that Poland's 1953 refusal is non-binding because the country was under the sway of the Soviet Union. Przemysław Sobolewski, head of the Bureau of Research of the Sejm, said that the political decision of 1953 was made by the Polish
847:
put out a statement stating: "The Declaration of 23 August 1953 was adopted in accordance with the constitutional order of the time, in compliance with international law laid down in the UN Charter." In August 2017, this position was again confirmed in a statement by Deputy Foreign Minister
1065:. But shortly later pursued a policy of radical redrawing of the longstanding Dutch-German border and the transfer of a large part of German territory to the Dutch as reparations. In its most ambitious form, this plan included the annexation of the cities and surroundings of
2404:"In addition, the report notes that this statement was forced on the government of the Polish People's Republic by the USSR; moreover, according to the minutes of the Council of Ministers of 19 August 1953, the renunciation concerned only the German Democratic Republic."
2308:
The Constitution of the People's Republic of Poland of 1952 reserved issues concerning the conclusion and ratification of international agreements for the Council of State (a collegiate body performing the functions of the head of state), and not for the Council of
990:
in 1953. The signatories agreed to postpone additional German debts until a final peace treaty with Germany would be made. In 1960, Germany concluded a treaty with the Greek government to compensate Greek victims of Nazi German terror which amounted to 115 Million
795:
to compensate the victims of the Holocaust. Until 2005 about 63 billion euros (equivalent to approximately 87.9 billion euros in 2022) have been paid to individuals. Additional payments by German companies which exploited forced workers have been made.
1011:
demanded that Germany pay the "complete" reparations to Greece. In April 2015, Greece evaluated the war reparations to be the equivalent of 278.7 billion euros (equivalent to 389 billion euros in 2022). While more German politicians and members of the
649:
as reparations for WWII. These efforts were mostly thwarted by the Western Allies and ultimately only approximately 69 square kilometres (27 sq mi) of German territory was annexed in 1949. Nearly all of these territories were returned to the
1424:
At their first summit, held in Tehran in November 1943, the three powers had agreed in principle to fall back on the Curzon Line when determining Poland's border. In return for using this line, Poland was to be entitled to the Oder as its new Western
960:, much of Greece was subjected to enormous destruction of its industry (80% of which was destroyed), infrastructure (28% destroyed), ports, roads, railways and bridges (90%), forests and other natural resources (25%) and loss of civilian life
1016:
are calling on the federal government to compensate Greece financially for the effects of the Nazi occupation, the German government replied that the stipulations of the Two Plus Four treaty still stand and the issue was resolved in 1990.
1930:
To achieve clarification on this point, the West German government asked for a confirmation of Poland's 1953 renunciation of reparations claims, which the Polish government granted in 1970 before signing the Warsaw Treaty in December
2183:
995:. These payments were explicitly marked as payments to the victims and were not supposed to be a general reparation treaty. Later Greek governments insist that this was only a down payment and further payments need to be made.
1996:"Uchwała Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 10 września 2004 r. w sprawie praw Polski do niemieckich reparacji wojennych oraz w sprawie bezprawnych roszczeń wobec Polski i obywateli polskich wysuwanych w Niemczech"
1982:
Then, in December 1970, Poland reaffirmed its renunciation of reparations claims under a new agreement with West Germany, which recognized the Polish border on the Oder and Neisse Rivers – in what had been pre-war
931:
signed a diplomatic note asking the German government to undertake an official negotiation process between Poland and Germany, and on 3 October presented the diplomatic note to the visiting German Foreign Minister
542:, that the Soviet Union collects and distributes the Polish share of reparations. Furthermore, the Soviet Union would extract its share of reparations mostly from the territory in its own occupation zone. The
1953:
In 1970, Poland and West Germany normalised their relationship in the Treaty of Warsaw. The Polish government confirmed the renouncement of reparations, while West Germany confirmed the Polish western border.
1646:
633:
from 1947 to 1956, with the intention of using its coal and steel industrial output to boost the French economy as reparations for the war. France sought to ultimately annex the Saar as well as the entire
118:, no reparations to Allied countries would be paid in money (though that rule was not followed in later agreements). Instead, much of the value transferred consisted of German industrial assets as well as
1745:
In 1953 Poland's then-communist rulers relinquished all claims to war reparations under pressure from the Soviet Union, which wanted to free East Germany, also a Soviet satellite, from any liabilities.
2025:
2144:
obligations. Poland voiced no claims nor did it protest the treaty. In keeping with the rule of estoppel, it would seem that such claims can not be raised after the entry into force of this treaty.
1852:
Władysław, Czapliński. (2007). "Polish Legal Positions with Regards to Post-Potsdam Germany in light of International Law: Aggression - Territory - Citizenship". In Góralski, Witold M. (ed.).
2125:
Czapliński, Władysłav (2007). "Polish Legal Positions with Regards to Post-Potsdam Germany in light of International Law: Aggression - Territory - Citizenship". In Góralski, Witold M. (ed.).
3055:
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in 1957. Under the Dutch-German treaty made in The Hague on 8 April 1960, West Germany agreed to pay to The Netherlands the sum of 280 million German marks in compensation for the return.
2382:
976:
the growing size of the reparations seized by the Allies and Greece ultimately received compensations in the form of money and industrial goods with a worth of about 25 million dollars.
919:
On the 83rd anniversary of the outbreak of World War II, on September 1, 2022, a Polish government report on Poland's war losses and damages between 1939 and 1945 was presented at the
735:
163:
1082:
1137:
The Soviet Union received compensation under the Paris Peace Treaty in 1947 from four Axis allied powers, in addition to the large reparations paid to the Soviet Union by the
852:, stating that "(...) the 1953 declaration constitutes a binding unilateral legal act of the Polish state – a subject of international law." According to law professor at the
2520:
1007:
reparations which had been made in previous treaties such as the London Debt Agreement. Greece rejects this notion and on 8 February 2015, the then-Greek Prime Minister,
1902:
government's view that Poland had renounced reparations claims in a 1953 agreement with the GDR that was repeated vis-a-vis West Germany at the time of the 1970 Treaty.
1823:
1111:
received a value of US$ 36 billion, in industrial equipment from the dismantled German factories. West Germany also paid 8 million German marks as reparations for
2290:
813:, under pressure from the Soviet Union which wanted to free East Germany from any liabilities, announced it would waive its right to further war reparations from
1547:
1052:
646:
999:
861:
661:
46:
2579:
2535:
1026:
664:
also sought to annex German territory as reparations for WWII. However, only small areas were occupied and then returned after German compensation payments.
2266:
2765:
2322:
1227:
673:
657:
2084:
1803:
2787:
2753:
Special Report published by the Bank of Greece in 1962 ... specified the amount outstanding to be ... more than tenfold the sum dispensed by Germany.
2652:
2604:
623:
556:
1944:
1810:
August 1953 was adopted in accordance with the constitutional order of the time, in compliance with international law laid down in the UN Charter.
2111:
909:
822:
Germany during World War II. In 1970, the 1953 renunciation of reparation rights was confirmed by the Polish Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs
2157:
3119:
1212:
868:(United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and France), to which Poland voiced no protest. The German government takes the same position.
1356:
884:
was to be paid to Poles who, during Nazi occupation, had paid into the German social security system but received no pension. In 1992, the
2681:
2443:
1694:
1317:"Agreement on reparation from Germany, on the establishment of an Inter-Allied Reparation Agency and on the restitution of monetary gold"
1132:
1102:
885:
2960:
761:
119:
33:
3124:
2953:
The Collapse of Germany 1945 and the Results of the Second World War: The Resolution of the Wehrmacht and the Consequences of the War
1265:
Pavel Polian-Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR Central European University Press 2003
1242:
1173:
987:
2559:
2471:
1169:
1108:
543:
3046:
2768:[Spiegel: The 278 billion in compensation that the Greeks are asking for may not be enough after all]. Lifo. 9 April 2022
1618:
857:
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rail lines were reduced to a single track with the material being taken to the Soviet Union. Similarly the (relatively limited)
162:
To oversee the extraction and distribution of the German reparations in their control zone, the Western Allies established the
2999:
2136:
1894:
1863:
1517:
1417:
610:
560:
538:
Poland was to be excluded from the proceedings of the IARA by demand from the Soviet Union. The Allies agreed as part of the
2418:"Uchwała Sejmu ws. dochodzenia przez Polskę zadośćuczynienia za szkody spowodowane przez Niemcy w czasie II wojny światowej"
2090:(...) the 1953 Declaration constitutes a binding, unilateral legal act of the Polish state - a subject of international law.
3139:
3129:
1222:
1043:
and persecution. Payments to Israel until 1987 amounted to about 14 billion dollars, equivalent to $ 36.5 billion in 2022.
2717:"Aufrechnungen von Frustrationen. Griechische Reparationsforderungen an Deutschland vor dem Hintergrund der Schuldenkrise"
2417:
1316:
1124:
1977:
3024:
2974:
892: 4.7 billion (equivalent to zl 37.8 billion or US$ 7.97 billion in 2022). Between 1992 and 2006, Germany and
2243:
1548:"Das Grenzland von Nordrhein-Westfalen, die Traktatländereien und die niederländischen Grenzkorrekturen 1949 bis 1963"
3093:
2932:
2746:
2224:
1969:
1923:
1488:
1468:
1448:
1349:"State Department and Foreign Affairs Records - RG 84: U.S. Delegation to the Inter-Allied Reparations Agency (IARA)"
1270:
2353:
2956:
2062:
August 2017 by then Deputy Foreign Minister Marek Magierowski in response to a parliamentary inquiry from the Sejm.
1348:
2874:
2128:
Poland-Germany 1945-2007: From Confrontation to Cooperation and Partnership in Europe : Studies and Documents
1604:
2502:
2026:"Deutsche Kriegsreparationen an Polen? Hintergründe und Einschätzungen eines nicht nur innerpolnischen Streites"
900:
The reparation issue arose again in late 2017 with comments made by Polish government officials from the ruling
897:
its funds to pay compensation between 1998 and 2002 to Polish Jews and Romani who were victims of Nazi Germany.
1193:
Thailand. Overall Japanese reparations amounted to about 1.5 billion US dollars which was about 4% of its GDP.
888:
was founded by the Polish and German governments, and as a result, Germany paid Polish sufferers approximately
810:
2383:"Mularczyk: Nie ma dokumentu spełniającego formalne wymogi uchwały rządu z 1953 r. o zrzeczeniu się reparacji"
1729:
1062:
905:
844:
1855:
Poland-Germany 1945-2007: From Confrontation to Cooperation and Partnership in Europe: Studies and Documents
1164:
Italian reparation payments amounted to about 366 million USD and were paid to the Soviet Union, as well as
581:
when determining Poland's eastern border, while in return Poland was entitled to a western border along the
2291:"Szef Biura Analiz Sejmowych: Polska i Niemcy nigdy po II wojnie światowej nie zawarły umowy ws. reparacji"
1040:
968:. Furthermore, in 1942, the Greek Central Bank was forced by the occupying Nazi regime to lend 476 million
639:
2615:
1518:"Alltag zwischen Mark und Gulden - der Selfkant unter niederländischer Auftragsverwaltung 1949 bis 1963"
2991:
1632:
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704:
99:
2716:
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1871:
Winiewicz, during the course of the negotiations leading to the normalization treaty of November 1970.
1795:
864:, negotiated in 1990 between the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, and the
957:
700:
2966:
2103:
901:
574:
123:
its distribution. To coordinate the distribution of the reparations between the victor powers, the
1669:
Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs (2008-07-18).
1550:[The border area of North Rhine-Westphalia, the Tract Lands and Dutch border corrections]
1207:
1202:
1159:
1086:
961:
913:
827:
712:
38:
1965:
1761:
1563:
1138:
1112:
1003:
865:
146:
All gold, silver and platinum in bullion or coin form held by any person/institution in Germany
124:
87:
2809:
2214:
2077:"Die verspätete Rechnung. Zur polnischen Diskussion über Reparationszahlungen aus Deutschland"
1824:"Nieznany dokument ONZ z 1969 r. "Wynika z niego wprost, że Polska nie zrzekła się reparacji""
1796:"Die verspätete Rechnung. Zur polnischen Diskussion über Reparationszahlungen aus Deutschland"
1089:
in 1949, almost all of which was returned to West Germany in 1963 in exchange for 280 million
2734:
1232:
979:
Greece received an additional share of reparations from other Axis powers as a result of the
965:
792:
2944:
1327:
823:
3134:
2131:. Polish Institute of International Affairs / Ministry of Foreign Affairs. pp. 49–50.
1858:. Polish Institute of International Affairs / Ministry of Foreign Affairs. pp. 49–50.
980:
920:
853:
2503:"Leaders of Poland, Germany call for 'swift' solution to Warsaw's rule of law row with EU"
1670:
787:
Germany concluded a variety of treaties with Western and Eastern countries as well as the
726:
Similarly, in the French Occupation Zone, key rail lines were dismantled to single track.
8:
2766:"Spiegel: Τα 278 δισεκ. των αποζημιώσεων που ζητούν οι Έλληνες ίσως τελικά να είναι λίγα"
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1706:
1668:
1237:
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630:
615:
3037:
2104:"Odpowiedź na zapytanie nr 3812 w sprawie strat poniesionych podczas II wojny światowej"
1995:
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continued to deliver industrial goods and raw materials to the Soviet Union until 1953.
3073:
2051:
1181:
1128:
736:
Allied plans for German industry after World War II § Reparations and exploitation
91:
638:
region into France proper, but was denied so by the rest of the Allies. Following the
3089:
3020:
2995:
2970:
2928:
2742:
2220:
2165:
2132:
2055:
1919:
1890:
1859:
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1444:
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1165:
933:
849:
788:
570:
539:
2244:"Fundacja Polsko-Niemieckie Pojednanie | Stiftung Polnisch-Deutsche Aussöhnung"
1520:[Between Mark and Gulden - Selfkant under Dutch administration 1949 - 1963]
130:
The Allies finally agreed for German reparations to be paid in the following forms:
2195:
2041:
1177:
770:
for several years to work for the Allies in camps, mining, harvesting or industry.
594:
582:
305:
169:
The following nations received reparations as part of the proceedings of the IARA:
137:
Transferring all manufacturing equipment, machinery and machine tools to the Allies
115:
2810:"Greece's claims for war reparations should be resolved by int'l court: Bundestag"
2340:
there is no diplomatic note to the government of the GDR, there is no return note
2835:
2267:"Zweiter Weltkrieg: Polens Regierung prüft Reparationsforderungen an Deutschland"
2126:
1884:
1853:
1478:
1458:
1438:
1217:
688:
677:
83:
3105:
Hannu Heikkilä, The Question of European Reparations in Allied Policy, 1943-1947
3104:
2949:
Der Zusammenbruch des Deutschen Reiches 1945. Die Folgen des Zweiten Weltkrieges
2580:"Οι μεγάλες καταστροφές και το γερμανικό χρέος στην Ελλάδα μέσα από ντοκουμέντα"
834:
recognized the Oder-Neisse as the final border between Poland and East Germany.
3016:
2536:"The Math of Mass Starvation and Murder: Germany in Greece During World War II"
1036:
1008:
877:
818:
2354:"Sprawozdanie w przedmiocie strat i szkód wojennych Polski w latach 1939-1945"
2199:
3113:
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1090:
944:
881:
873:
767:
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642:, France had to relinquish its control of the Saar region on 1 January 1957.
3013:
Repressed, Remitted, Rejected: German Reparations Debts to Poland and Greece
1945:"The legal questions behind Poland's claim for war reparations from Germany"
1730:"Germany owes Poland over $ 850 billion in WW2 reparations: senior lawmaker"
1410:
Repressed, Remitted, Rejected: German Reparations Debts to Poland and Greece
152:
All patents and research data relevant to military application and processes
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928:
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155:
Requisition of current German industrial production and resource extraction
95:
75:
71:
67:
1078:
1057:
Immediately after the end of the war, the Netherlands demanded 25 billion
2323:"Członek Rady ISW: zrzeczenie się reparacji w 1953 r. — wątpliwe prawnie"
992:
969:
578:
361:
2444:"Poland demands $ 1.3 trillion in World War II reparations from Germany"
2046:
1697:[Compensation payments to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust]
1695:"Die Entschädigungszahlungen an jüdische Opfer des Nationalsozialismus"
720:
2216:
Reluctant Realists: The Christian Democrats and West German Ostpolitik
1074:
3085:
3056:
Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law
2924:
2184:"On Behalf of Victims of Pseudo-Medical Experiments Red Cross Action"
1436:
1013:
860:, the reparation question has been closed with the conclusion of the
749:
745:
602:
1085:
69 square kilometres (27 sq mi) of border territory from
952:, page 114 (political archive of the German Federal Foreign Office)
140:
Transferring all railroad cars, locomotives and ships to the Allies
2158:"Germany rejects Poland's claim it owes €1.3tn in war reparations"
1918:. Routledge Advances in European Politics. Routledge. p. 56.
1066:
1058:
893:
606:
565:
103:
79:
2788:"Greece gains allies in Bundestag over WWII reparations dispute"
1886:
Germany's Foreign Policy of Reconciliation: From Enmity to Amity
24:
1070:
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880:
agreement was signed in Warsaw. It stipulated that 1.3 billion
741:
1605:"Vor 75 Jahren: Aufbau der Bahn nach Kriegsende | MDR.DE"
715:
was also dismantled with the notable exception of most of the
2836:"Greece Nazi occupation: Athens asks Germany for 279bn euros"
2723:(in German). Leibniz-Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung.
1762:"Legal Aspects of the Unification of the Two German States"
1480:
The Oder-Neisse Line: a reappraisal under international law
839:
635:
2560:"Τα ερείπια της γερμανικής κατοχής στην Ελλάδα (μέρος 2ο)"
1619:"Die Stunde Null in der Sowjetischen Besatzungszone (SBZ)"
1916:
Multilateralism, German Foreign Policy and Central Europe
1585:
1575:
1573:
1125:
Economy of East Germany § Soviet occupation period
1053:
Dutch annexation of German territory after World War II
597:, leading to the expulsion of 12 million Germans (from
1440:
The Politics Today Companion to West European Politics
1000:
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
862:
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
173:
Allotment of German reparations by the Western Allies
2854:
2733:
2684:[The German (remaining) debt towards Greece]
2074:
1793:
1633:"Wirtschaftsentwicklung von 1945 bis 1949 | BPB"
1570:
1027:
Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany
826:
during the course of the negotiations leading to the
694:
98:
were obliged to pay war reparations according to the
1964:
1889:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 213.
1456:
1228:
Allied plans for German industry after World War II
1093:
paid by the Federal German government to the Dutch.
1707:
Wissenschaftliche Dienste des Deutschen Bundestages
1647:"Gäubahn: wechselvolle Historie, ungewisse Zukunft"
1408:Roth, Karl Heinz; Rübner, Hartmut (December 2021).
674:
Allied plans for German industry after World War II
2682:"Die "Deutsche Restschuld" gegenüber Griechenland"
1942:
998:In 1990, West Germany and East Germany signed the
2083:. Leibniz-Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung.
1802:. Leibniz-Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung.
1476:
557:Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union
3111:
2739:Germany's War Debt to Greece: A Burden Unsettled
1403:
1401:
2609:(In Greek and German) Athens 2006 p. 1018-1019"
1789:
1787:
1785:
1783:
927:On 2 October 2022, the Polish Foreign Minister
740:The Allies confiscated large amounts of German
158:Forced labour provided by the German population
3040:[The German question and reparations]
2714:
1847:
1845:
1755:
1753:
1437:Geoffrey K. Roberts, Patricia Hogwood (2013).
2943:
2875:"Who still owes what for the two World Wars?"
2710:
2708:
2653:"Study Sheds New Light on Forced Greek Loans"
2495:
2019:
2017:
1503:Dieter-Mueller et al. (2008), pp. 366; 370ff.
1398:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1146:approximately $ 12 billion in total in 2022.
837:On 10 September 2004, the Polish parliament (
143:Confiscation of all German investments abroad
2676:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2472:"Szef MSZ podpisał notę w sprawie reparacji"
2219:. Duke University Press Books. p. 160.
2212:
2068:
1780:
1357:National Archives and Records Administration
1311:
1309:
1002:('Two Plus Four Agreement') with the former
912:, which came into force in 1952, it was the
910:Constitution of the Polish People's Republic
667:
614:territory was a compensation for the Polish
2118:
1970:"What's Behind Poland's Reparation Debate?"
1842:
1750:
1133:Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union
1103:World War II reparations towards Yugoslavia
1061:as compensation for among other things the
886:Foundation for Polish-German Reconciliation
593:annexed the German territories east of the
106:was not included in any of these treaties.
3011:Roth, Karl-Heinz; Rübner, Hartmut (2022).
3010:
2985:
2705:
2238:
2236:
2124:
2023:
2014:
1936:
1556:Jahrbuch / Zentrum für Niederlande-Studien
1407:
1276:
762:Forced labor of Germans after World War II
3038:"Die deutsche Frage und die Reparationen"
2667:
2521:"Mularczyk: Odrzucamy stanowisko Niemiec"
2155:
2075:Krzysztof Ruchniewicz (26 October 2017).
2045:
1913:
1851:
1794:Krzysztof Ruchniewicz (26 October 2017).
1727:
1463:. Harvard University Press. p. 303.
1306:
1243:London Agreement on German External Debts
1213:Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)
988:London Agreement on German External Debts
3084:] (in German). Vol. 4. Munich:
1541:
1539:
1483:. East European Monographs. p. 33.
1341:
1109:Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
943:
729:
564:
49:of all important aspects of the article.
3047:Heidelberg Journal of International Law
2640:Population Changes in Europe Since 1939
2605:"Council for Reparations from Germany,
2533:
2233:
2024:Garsztecki, Stefan (27 November 2018).
1943:Mateusz Piątkowski (9 September 2022).
1883:Feldman, Lily Gardner (2 August 2012).
1882:
1876:
1759:
1671:"Allied Occupation of Germany, 1945-52"
1511:
1509:
1443:. Oxford University Press. p. 50.
1299:
1297:
1295:
752:worth about 10 billion (1948) dollars.
3112:
3072:
2860:
2114:from the original on 3 September 2017.
2087:from the original on 18 January 2022.
1806:from the original on 18 January 2022.
1591:
1579:
1035:for confiscated Jewish property under
766:Millions of Germans were pressed into
550:
45:Please consider expanding the lead to
3035:
2872:
2188:International Review of the Red Cross
1766:European Journal of International Law
1545:
1536:
1149:
1081:. Subsequently, the Dutch government
561:Former eastern territories of Germany
3120:Aftermath of World War II in Germany
2962:Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt
2918:
2264:
1515:
1506:
1292:
1223:International Authority for the Ruhr
782:
647:annex large parts of Western Germany
18:
2897:Hinrichsen (2023), pp. 133-134; 141
1978:German Council on Foreign Relations
1728:Plucinska, Joanna (26 April 2019).
773:
13:
2741:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 13.
2258:
2176:
1772:(1). Oxford University Press: 32.
1046:
723:infrastructure for the most part.
695:Dismantling of rail infrastructure
547:commission and lasted until 1953.
134:Dismantling of the German industry
14:
3151:
1532:. Rheinland-Verlag GmbH: 136–154.
1386:Roth (2022), pp. 149-150; 159-160
1139:Soviet Occupation Zone in Germany
1031:West Germany paid reparations to
779:to over several billion dollars.
3125:Economic history of World War II
3078:Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte
2957:Germany and the Second World War
2925:Routledge - Taylor & Francis
2156:Oltermann, Philip (2022-09-02).
1063:Dutch winter famine of 1944–1945
972:at 0% interest to Nazi Germany.
755:
531:
511:
492:
473:
454:
435:
416:
397:
378:
360:
341:
322:
304:
285:
266:
247:
228:
209:
190:
23:
2912:
2900:
2891:
2873:Gibbs, Alexandra (2015-03-18).
2866:
2828:
2802:
2780:
2758:
2727:
2645:
2632:
2597:
2572:
2552:
2527:
2513:
2464:
2436:
2410:
2375:
2346:
2315:
2283:
2206:
2149:
2096:
1988:
1958:
1907:
1816:
1721:
1687:
1662:
1653:
1639:
1625:
1611:
1597:
1497:
1430:
1412:. Berghahn Books. p. 147.
1118:
872:Second World War. In 1975, the
577:agreed in principle to use the
164:Inter-Allied Reparations Agency
37:may be too short to adequately
2906:Hinrichsen (2023), pp. 140-141
2715:Ulf Brunnbauer (1 July 2015).
1389:
1380:
1371:
1259:
986:Greece was a signatory of the
47:provide an accessible overview
1:
2959:(in German). Vol. 10/2.
2213:Clay Clemens (27 July 1989).
1457:Piotr Stefan Wandycz (1980).
1253:
1096:
962:(7.02–11.17% of its citizens)
799:
544:Provisional Polish Government
2607:Black Book of the Occupation
1460:The United States and Poland
1328:United Nations Treaty Series
1113:forced human experimentation
184:% of Category B reparations
7:
3140:Contemporary German history
3130:Economic history of Germany
1196:
1189:officially cancelled them.
830:of November 1970, in which
811:People's Republic of Poland
652:Federal Republic of Germany
624:annexed by the Soviet Union
181:% of Category A reparations
109:
16:Reparations paid by Germany
10:
3156:
2992:Cambridge University Press
2988:When Nations Can't Default
2986:Hinrichsen, Simon (2023).
2919:Cook, Bernhard A. (2013).
2034:Country Analytical Digests
1477:Phillip A. Bühler (1990).
1156:Paris Peace Treaties, 1947
1153:
1143:German Democratic Republic
1122:
1100:
1050:
1024:
759:
733:
705:German Democratic Republic
671:
645:The Netherlands sought to
554:
100:Paris Peace Treaties, 1947
2923:. Vol. 1. New York:
2790:. EurActiv. 18 March 2022
2200:10.1017/S0020860400015576
1914:Hofhansel, Claus (2005).
1659:Hinrichsen (2023), p. 141
1395:Hinrichsen (2023), p. 133
1289:Cook (2013), pp. 461-462.
1020:
939:
804:
701:Soviet Zone of Occupation
668:Dismantling of industries
2967:Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt
2655:. Spiegel. 21 March 2015
2642:, Geneva 1951. pp. 89-91
2534:Vallianatos, Evaggelos.
2265:WELT, DIE (2017-08-02).
1546:Woelk, Wolfgang (1995).
908:, even though under the
817:on 1 January 1954. In a
789:Jewish Claims Conference
499:United States of America
1208:Allied-occupied Germany
1203:World War I reparations
1160:Treaty of San Francisco
1087:Allied occupied Germany
914:Polish Council of State
809:On 23 August 1953, the
713:railway electrification
640:results of a plebiscite
3036:Rumpf, Helmut (1973).
2586:(in Greek). 2015-03-05
2327:Polska Agencia Prasowa
1564:University of Muenster
1115:on Yugoslav citizens.
958:Nazi German occupation
953:
586:
573:in November 1943, the
125:Allied Control Council
2735:Nikos Christodoulakis
2721:Zeitgeschichte online
2081:Zeitgeschichte online
1968:(21 September 2022).
1800:Zeitgeschichte online
1303:Rumpf (1973), p. 346.
1233:Operation Osoaviakhim
1154:Further information:
1123:Further information:
1101:Further information:
1051:Further information:
1025:Further information:
947:
793:World Jewish Congress
734:Further information:
730:Intellectual property
672:Further information:
568:
555:Further information:
461:Union of South Africa
3082:German civil history
1966:Sławomir Sierakowski
1526:Geschichte Im Westen
1516:Hopf, Simon (2003).
1377:Cook (2013), p. 462.
981:Paris Peace Treaties
906:Council of Ministers
858:Władysłav Czapliński
854:University of Warsaw
845:Council of Ministers
828:normalization treaty
629:France occupied the
149:All foreign currency
82:were obliged to pay
3074:Wehler, Hans-Ulrich
2945:Dieter-Müller, Rolf
2691:Deutscher Bundestag
2509:. 13 December 2021.
2424:. 14 September 2022
2194:(142): 3–21. 1973.
2032:. Länder-Analysen (
2002:. 10 September 2004
1949:notesfrompoland.com
1830:. 30 September 2022
1675:2001-2009.state.gov
1594:, pp. 948–949.
1238:Operation Paperclip
956:As a result of the
719:which retained its
616:Eastern Borderlands
551:Territorial changes
174:
90:, according to the
76:Democratic Republic
2638:Gregory, Frumkin.
2478:. 3 September 2022
2389:. 3 September 2022
2363:. 1 September 2022
2329:. 2 September 2022
2297:. 9 September 2022
2047:10.31205/PA.227.01
1760:Hailbronner, Kay.
1621:. 28 January 2015.
1150:Other Axis nations
1129:Kaliningrad Oblast
1083:seized and annexed
954:
587:
172:
92:Potsdam Conference
88:Allied governments
3001:978-1-009-34392-3
2921:Europe Since 1945
2694:(in German). 2015
2138:978-83-89607-32-4
2110:. 8 August 2017.
1896:978-1-4422-1710-2
1865:978-83-89607-32-4
1419:978-1-80073-257-5
1248:Wirtschaftswunder
1141:and the eventual
934:Annalena Baerbock
850:Marek Magierowski
783:Holocaust victims
631:Saar protectorate
571:Tehran Conference
540:Potsdam Agreement
528:
527:
127:was established.
114:According to the
64:
63:
3147:
3099:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3043:
3030:
3005:
2980:
2938:
2907:
2904:
2898:
2895:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2885:
2870:
2864:
2858:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2712:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2687:
2678:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2660:
2649:
2643:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2620:
2614:. Archived from
2613:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2591:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2566:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2485:
2483:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2452:. 3 October 2022
2440:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2396:
2394:
2379:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2358:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2336:
2334:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2304:
2302:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2278:
2277:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2250:. Archived from
2240:
2231:
2230:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2100:
2094:
2093:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2049:
2021:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2007:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1849:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1791:
1778:
1777:
1757:
1748:
1747:
1742:
1740:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1700:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1681:
1666:
1660:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1568:
1567:
1553:
1543:
1534:
1533:
1523:
1513:
1504:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1474:
1454:
1434:
1428:
1427:
1405:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1384:
1378:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1359:. 15 August 2016
1345:
1339:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1321:
1313:
1304:
1301:
1290:
1287:
1274:
1263:
1004:Allied countries
774:Occupation costs
707:) virtually all
537:
535:
534:
517:
515:
514:
498:
496:
495:
479:
477:
476:
460:
458:
457:
441:
439:
438:
422:
420:
419:
403:
401:
400:
384:
382:
381:
365:
364:
347:
345:
344:
328:
326:
325:
309:
308:
291:
289:
288:
272:
270:
269:
253:
251:
250:
234:
232:
231:
215:
213:
212:
196:
194:
193:
175:
171:
116:Yalta Conference
72:Federal Republic
59:
56:
50:
27:
19:
3155:
3154:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3144:
3110:
3109:
3096:
3061:
3059:
3041:
3027:
3002:
2977:
2935:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2901:
2896:
2892:
2883:
2881:
2871:
2867:
2859:
2855:
2845:
2843:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2819:
2817:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2793:
2791:
2786:
2785:
2781:
2771:
2769:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2749:
2732:
2728:
2713:
2706:
2697:
2695:
2685:
2680:
2679:
2668:
2658:
2656:
2651:
2650:
2646:
2637:
2633:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2589:
2587:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2544:
2542:
2532:
2528:
2519:
2518:
2514:
2501:
2500:
2496:
2481:
2479:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2455:
2453:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2427:
2425:
2416:
2415:
2411:
2392:
2390:
2381:
2380:
2376:
2366:
2364:
2356:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2332:
2330:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2300:
2298:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2275:
2273:
2263:
2259:
2242:
2241:
2234:
2227:
2211:
2207:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2154:
2150:
2139:
2123:
2119:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2073:
2069:
2036:) (in German).
2022:
2015:
2005:
2003:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1963:
1959:
1941:
1937:
1926:
1912:
1908:
1897:
1881:
1877:
1866:
1850:
1843:
1833:
1831:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1792:
1781:
1758:
1751:
1738:
1736:
1726:
1722:
1712:
1710:
1698:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1679:
1677:
1667:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1635:. 13 July 2005.
1631:
1630:
1626:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1578:
1571:
1551:
1544:
1537:
1521:
1514:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1491:
1471:
1451:
1435:
1431:
1420:
1406:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1362:
1360:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1332:
1330:
1324:treaties.un.org
1319:
1315:
1314:
1307:
1302:
1293:
1288:
1277:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1218:Morgenthau plan
1199:
1162:
1152:
1135:
1121:
1105:
1099:
1055:
1049:
1047:The Netherlands
1029:
1023:
942:
902:Law and Justice
824:Józef Winiewicz
807:
802:
785:
776:
764:
758:
738:
732:
697:
689:Eastern Germany
680:
678:Morgenthau Plan
670:
563:
553:
532:
530:
512:
510:
493:
491:
474:
472:
455:
453:
436:
434:
417:
415:
398:
396:
379:
377:
359:
342:
340:
323:
321:
303:
286:
284:
267:
265:
248:
246:
229:
227:
210:
208:
191:
189:
112:
84:war reparations
60:
54:
51:
44:
32:This article's
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3153:
3143:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3108:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3094:
3069:
3068:
3032:
3031:
3026:978-1800732575
3025:
3017:Berghahn Books
3007:
3006:
3000:
2982:
2981:
2976:978-3421043382
2975:
2940:
2939:
2933:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2899:
2890:
2865:
2863:, p. 950.
2853:
2842:. 7 April 2015
2827:
2816:. 10 July 2019
2801:
2779:
2757:
2747:
2726:
2704:
2666:
2644:
2631:
2596:
2571:
2551:
2526:
2512:
2494:
2463:
2435:
2409:
2374:
2345:
2314:
2282:
2257:
2254:on 2008-10-10.
2232:
2225:
2205:
2175:
2148:
2137:
2117:
2095:
2067:
2030:Polen-Analysen
2013:
1987:
1957:
1935:
1924:
1906:
1895:
1875:
1864:
1841:
1815:
1779:
1749:
1720:
1686:
1661:
1652:
1638:
1624:
1610:
1596:
1584:
1582:, p. 947.
1569:
1535:
1505:
1496:
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3015:. New York:
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2623:. Retrieved
2616:the original
2606:
2599:
2588:. Retrieved
2584:Newsbeast.gr
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2554:
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2475:
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2449:PBS NewsHour
2447:
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2295:Polska Times
2294:
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2274:. Retrieved
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2252:the original
2247:
2215:
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2187:
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2162:The Guardian
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1990:
1981:
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1960:
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1938:
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1900:
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1703:bundestag.de
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1353:archives.gov
1352:
1343:
1331:. Retrieved
1323:
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1163:
1136:
1119:Soviet Union
1106:
1091:Deutschmarks
1056:
1030:
997:
985:
978:
974:
966:Great Famine
955:
950:Akte R 27320
949:
929:Zbigniew Rau
926:
921:Royal Castle
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838:
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832:West Germany
815:East Germany
808:
786:
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599:East Prussia
591:Soviet Union
588:
529:
168:
161:
129:
113:
96:Axis nations
68:World War II
65:
52:
36:
34:lead section
3135:Reparations
3062:2 September
2861:Wehler 1987
2476:Dziennik.pl
2422:sejm.gov.pl
2361:sejm.gov.pl
2248:www.fpnp.pl
2108:sejm.gov.pl
2000:sejm.gov.pl
1739:16 February
1592:Wehler 1987
1580:Wehler 1987
1363:2 September
1333:2 September
1180:. Finland,
993:German mark
983:from 1947.
970:Reichsmarks
866:Four Powers
703:(later the
611:territories
595:Oder-Neisse
579:Curzon Line
569:During the
442:Netherlands
423:New Zealand
70:, both the
55:August 2024
3114:Categories
2884:2019-12-03
2794:2 December
2772:2 December
2698:2021-07-23
2659:2 December
2625:2011-06-15
2590:2017-11-30
2565:2017-11-30
2545:2017-11-30
2482:22 October
2456:17 October
2393:24 October
2387:Bankier.pl
2333:20 October
2309:Ministers.
2301:22 October
2276:2017-11-30
2040:(227): 5.
2006:20 October
1834:20 October
1680:2019-12-03
1254:References
1170:Yugoslavia
1097:Yugoslavia
800:Recipients
750:trademarks
746:copyrights
721:third rail
662:Luxembourg
518:Yugoslavia
385:Luxembourg
3086:C.H. Beck
3058:: 344–371
2428:2 October
2367:2 October
2170:0261-3077
2056:226886657
1713:April 19,
1566:: 85–103.
1273:P.244-249
1079:Osnabrück
1014:Bundestag
609:). These
603:Pomerania
575:Big Three
216:Australia
39:summarize
3076:(1987).
2947:(2008).
2840:BBC News
2737:(2014).
2540:Truthout
2507:Politico
2271:DIE WELT
2112:Archived
2085:Archived
1983:Germany.
1974:dgap.org
1804:Archived
1197:See also
1186:Bulgaria
1178:Ethiopia
1059:Guilders
948:Excerpt
791:and the
687:, while
110:Payments
94:. Other
2955:].
2846:7 April
2820:11 July
1734:Reuters
1425:Border.
1182:Romania
1174:Albania
1075:Münster
1067:Cologne
894:Austria
878:Schmidt
742:patents
699:In the
658:Belgium
607:Silesia
292:Denmark
235:Belgium
197:Albania
178:Country
104:Austria
86:to the
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2814:Xinhua
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1828:Wprost
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486:27.80
478:
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273:Canada
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372:2.90
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310:Egypt
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203:0.35
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3064:2022
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2996:ISBN
2971:ISBN
2929:ISBN
2879:CNBC
2848:2015
2822:2019
2796:2022
2774:2022
2743:ISBN
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2484:2022
2458:2022
2430:2022
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2303:2022
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2008:2022
1920:ISBN
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1741:2023
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
