Controversies about psychiatry

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of psychiatry themselves supported the notion that Black people were inferior, lower class citizens that must be treated separately and differently from white patients. With time, racial segregation within hospitals became interspersed with entirely separate hospitals for white and Black patients, each with differential treatment and quality of care. Political figures in the post-Civil War era argued that emancipation had led to a significant increase in insanity cases amongst Black individuals, and they cited the need to accommodate this increase via segregated and Black-only insane asylums. Many hospitals, especially in the southern United States, did not admit Black patients until they were eventually mandated to do so. The last segregated hospital opened in 1933. Popular arguments also circulated that Black patients were more difficult to take care of in mental institutions, making psychiatric care for them more difficult and justifying the need for segregated facilities.

510:, Black psychiatrists expressed concerns to the APA that the needs of Black communities and Black psychiatrists were being ignored by the professional organization. In 1969, a contingent of Black psychiatrists presented a list of 9 concerns to the APA Board of Trustees regarding experiences of structural racism in the field. Their '9 points' represented a wide array of experiences of discrimination, both from the experiences of practitioners and patients, and on the institutional and individual level and the group demanded change from within the APA. For example, they called for more Black leaders on APA committees as well as the desegregation of all mental health facilities, both public and private, in the United States. 863:

of psychosurgery were the same as the lobotomy since it had the same effects "emotional blunting, passivity, reduced capacity to learn" and said that psycho-surgeons "represent the greatest future threat that we are going to face for our traditional American values", arguing that if the US became a totalitarian regime lobotomy and psychosurgery would be the equivalent of the secret police. The subcommittee published a report in 1977 suggesting that data should be carefully collected about psychosurgery and that it should not be performed upon children or prisoners.

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psychiatric diagnosis can in and of itself be regarded as oppressive. In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials. The use of hospitals instead of jails prevents the victims from receiving legal aid before the courts, makes indefinite incarceration possible, and discredits the individuals and their ideas. In that manner, whenever open trials are undesirable, they are avoided.

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funds, hospitals began to integrate quickly in order to be able to continue to access such funding. In January 1966, around two-thirds of Southern hospitals were segregated facilities and many Northern facilities remain segregated in-effect. One year later, by January 1967, there were very few hospitals in the United States that remained segregated. Segregation within mental institutions and hospitals is one example of the history of racism within psychiatry.

135: 264:, among others. These sociologists viewed medicalization as a form of social control in which medical authority expanded into domains of everyday existence, and they rejected medicalization in the name of liberation. This critique was embodied in works such as Conrad's "The discovery of hyperkinesis: notes on medicalization of deviance", published in 1973 ( 4682:

even demonstrated improvement in cognitive function, compared to baseline, several weeks to months after successful treatment with ECT. An even more recently published study that reviewed 10 years of cognitive performance data in relation to ECT concluded that there is no evidence of cumulative cognitive deficits associated with repeated ECT courses.

899:. This marketing by the pharmaceutical industry has an influence on practicing psychiatrists, which affects prescription. Child psychiatry is one of the areas in which prescription of psychotropic medication has grown massively. In the past, prescription of these medications for children was rare, but nowadays child psychiatrists prescribe 1180:, in late 1988 leaders from several of the main national and grassroots psychiatric survivor groups felt that an independent, human rights coalition focused on problems in the mental health system was needed. That year the Support Coalition International (SCI) was formed. SCI's first public action was to stage a counter-conference and 981:(quetiapine), amidst federal investigations of its marketing practices. By expanding the conditions for which they were indicated, Astrazeneca's Seroquel and Eli Lilly's Zyprexa had become the biggest selling antipsychotics in 2008 with global sales of $ 5.5 billion and $ 5.4 billion respectively. 988:

conducted research on bipolar disorder in children that led to an increase in such diagnoses. A 2008 Senate investigation found that Biederman also received $ 1.6 million in speaking and consulting fees between 2000 and 2007— some of them undisclosed to Harvard— from companies including the makers of

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Use of this class of drugs has a history of criticism in residential care. As the drugs used can make patients calmer and more compliant, critics claim that the drugs can be overused. Outside doctors can feel pressure from care home staff. In an official review commissioned by UK government ministers

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recommends ECT for the short-term treatment of severe, treatment-resistant depression, and advises against its use in schizophrenia. According to the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments, ECT is more efficacious for the treatment of depression than antidepressants, with a response rate of

874:

is a therapy method which was used widely between the 1930s and 1960s and is, in a modified form, still used today. Electroconvulsive therapy was one treatment that the anti-psychiatry movement wanted to be eliminated from psychiatric practice. Their arguments were that ECT damages the brain, and was

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Psychosurgery was investigated by the US Senate in the 1973 by the Health Subcommittee of the Senate's Committee on Labor and Public Welfare chaired by Senator Edward Kennedy due to growing concern about the ethical boundaries of science and medicine. At this committee Breggin argued that newer forms

614:

She argues that the concept of schizophrenia and its biological basis serves a social function for psychiatrists. She views the concept of schizophrenia as necessary for psychiatry to be considered as a medical field, that the claimed biological link gives psychiatrists protection from accusations of

22:

is, and has historically been, viewed as controversial by those under its care, as well as sociologists and psychiatrists themselves. There are a variety of reasons cited for this controversy, including the subjectivity of diagnosis, the use of diagnosis and treatment for social and political control

485:

Until the late 1960s, many hospitals remained segregated. This affected the experiences of racial minorities accessing psychiatric care in mental institutions and hospitals in the United States. When Lyndon B. Johnson's administration stated that no segregated hospital would receive federal Medicare

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used this supposed evidence to argue for slavery, arguing that free Black people could not be entrusted with their lives and would ultimately develop lunacy. All in all, throughout the 19th century, psychiatric diagnoses and scientifically racist theories were used to medicalize Blackness and uphold

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and promoting antipsychotics, including allegations of downplaying or covering up adverse effects, expanding the number of conditions or illegally promoting off-label usage; influencing drug trials (or their publication) to try to show that the expensive and profitable newer atypicals were superior

894:

Psychiatry has greatly benefitted by advances in pharmacotherapy. However, the close relationship between those prescribing psychiatric medication and pharmaceutical companies, and the risk of a conflict of interest, is also a source of concern. This relationship is often described as being part of

481:

Segregation within mental institutions and hospitals is another example of the history of racism within psychiatry. Many psychiatric hospitals in the 19th century either excluded or segregated Black patients or admitted Black slaves to work at the hospital in exchange for care. The founding fathers

420:

Psychiatric diagnoses were influenced by Black people's status as free or enslaved. Enslaved people were not considered civilized enough to be diagnosed with insanity, while free Black people were over-diagnosed with insanity, having much higher diagnosis rates than white people. Specific diagnoses

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noted that Markingson was enrolled in the study against the wishes of his mother, Mary Weiss, and that he was forced to choose between enrolling in the study or being involuntarily committed to a state mental institution. Further investigation revealed financial ties to AstraZeneca by Markingson's

633:

Underlying issues associated with schizophrenia would be better addressed as a spectrum of conditions or as individual dimensions along which everyone varies rather than by a diagnostic category based on an arbitrary cut-off between normal and ill. This approach appears consistent with research on

384:. The practice of incarceration of political dissidents in mental hospitals in Eastern Europe and the former USSR damaged the credibility of psychiatric practice in these states and entailed strong condemnation from the international community. Political abuse of psychiatry also takes place in the 4681:

ECT is associated with both anterograde and retrograde amnesia. Studies utilizing objective measures of assessing anterograde amnesia have consistently demonstrated that any such abnormalities disappear within several months following completion of an acute ECT course. Several recent studies have

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In an effort to reduce the potential for hidden conflicts of interest between researchers and pharmaceutical companies, the US Government issued a mandate in 2012 requiring that drug manufacturers receiving funds under the Medicare and Medicaid programs collect data, and make public, all gifts to

448:

Proponents of scientific racism have historically attempted to "prove" that Black people are physiologically and cognitively inferior to white people based on faulty assumptions and prejudices. Perpetuated by the inaccurate application of biodeterminism, specialists in neuroanatomy and psychiatry

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in 1967 and is understood in current psychiatry to mean opposition to psychiatry's perceived role aspects of treatment. The anti-psychiatry message is that psychiatric treatments are "ultimately more damaging than helpful to patients". Psychiatry is seen to involve an "unequal power relationship

736:

ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been controversial since the 1970s. The controversies involve clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behavior to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition.

664:

and colleagues argue that psychotic symptoms may be a common end-state in a variety of disorders, including schizophrenia, rather than a reflection of the specific etiology of schizophrenia, and warn that there is little basis for regarding DSM's operational definition as the "true" construct of

463:

The proportion of Black individuals confined in establishments for "flawed and imbecile" patients increased throughout the late 19th and early 20th century. Psychiatry contributed towards the inaccurate and racist belief that if they were left to their respective means, they would not be able to

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issue of school performance into a medical one. Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder, at least in the small number of people with severe symptoms. Among healthcare providers the debate mainly centers on diagnosis and treatment in the much larger number of people with less

610:

argues that psychiatry is actually the study of behavior, but acts as if it is the study of the brain based on a presumed connection between patterns of behavior and the biological function of the brain. She argues that in the case of schizophrenia it is the bizarre behavior of individuals that

367:

rule when political dissenters were labeled as "mentally ill" and subjected to inhumane "treatments." In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as

570:

The act of diagnosis itself has been criticized for being arbitrary with some conditions being overdiagnosed. Individuals may be diagnosed with a mental disorder despite having been perceived as having no issues with their behavior. In Virginia, U.S., it was found up to 33% of white boys are

359:

In unstable countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions. The diagnosis of mental illness allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society. In addition, receiving a

660:. She argues that overemphasis on psychosis in the diagnostic criteria, while improving diagnostic reliability, ignores more fundamental cognitive impairments that are harder to assess due to large variations in presentation. This view is supported by other psychiatrists. In the same vein, 279:

These sociologists did not believe medicalization to be a new phenomenon, arguing that medical authorities had always been concerned with social behavior and traditionally functioned as agents of social control (Foucault, 1965; Szasz, 1970; Rosen). However, these authors took the view that

921:, that the evidence for antipsychotics from discontinuation-relapse studies may be flawed, because they do not take into account that antipsychotics may sensitize the brain and provoke psychosis if discontinued, which may then be wrongly interpreted as a relapse of the original condition. 4599:

Kennedy, SH; Milev, R; Giacobbe, P; Ramasubbu, R; Lam, RW; Parikh, SV; Patten, SB; Ravindran, AV (October 2009). "Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) Clinical guidelines for the management of major depressive disorder in adults. IV. Neurostimulation therapies".

1144:

Divergence within psychiatry generated the anti-psychiatry movement in the 1960s and 1970s, and is still present. Issues remaining relevant in contemporary psychiatry are questions of; freedom versus coercion, mind versus brain, nature versus nurture, and the right to be different.

1083:

of mental patients. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes that "poor quality services and human rights violations in mental health and social care facilities are still an everyday occurrence in many places", but has recently taken steps to improve the situation globally.

1167:

ferment of the late 1960s and early 1970s and the personal histories of psychiatric abuse experienced by some ex-patients rather than the intradisciplinary discourse of antipsychiatry. The key text in the intellectual development of the survivor movement, at least in the US, was

851:. He identified all psychosurgery with the lobotomy as a rhetorical device to criticize the practice of psychosurgery more broadly. He stated that "psychosurgery is a crime against humanity, a crime that cannot be condoned on medical, ethical, or legal grounds". Psycho-surgeons 646:, surveying the existing literature on delusions, pointed out that the consistency and completeness of the definition of delusion have been found wanting by many; delusions are neither necessarily fixed nor false, and need not involve the presence of incontrovertible evidence. 754:

With widely differing rates of diagnosis across countries, states within countries, races, and ethnicities, some suspect factors other than the presence of the symptoms of ADHD are playing a role in diagnosis. Some sociologists consider ADHD to be an example of the

577:

argued that mental health diagnoses were used as a form of labelling violations of societies norms. Bill Fullford, introduced the idea of "value-laden" mental health diagnosis with mental health lying between physical health and a moral judgment. Under this system

619:'s misrepresentation of underlying data. She argues that schizophrenia and its biological basis also gives families, psychiatrists and society as a whole the ability to avoid blame for the damage they cause individuals and the ineffectiveness of treatment. 797:

is brain surgery with the aim of changing an individual's behavior or psychological function. Historically, this was achieved through ablative psychosurgery that removed or deliberately damaged (lesioning) a section of the brain, but more recently

113:. As societal views on homosexuality have changed in recent decades, it is no longer considered a mental illness and is more widely accepted by society. As another example that challenged conceptions of mental illness, a widely publicized study by 953:

to the older cheaper typicals that were out of patent. Following charges of illegal marketing, settlements by two large pharmaceutical companies in the US set records for the largest criminal fines ever imposed on corporations. One case involved

472:

those classed as feebleminded or who received welfare payments. The premise that the genes of those deemed mentally ill were undesirable was used to justify sterilization which was frequently supervised by physicians, including psychiatrists.

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and poverty, and instead presented health as an individual issue. Others examined the power and prestige of the medical profession, including use of terminology to mystify and of professional rules to exclude or subordinate others.

925:

it was reported that the needless use of antipsychotic medication in dementia care was widespread and was linked to 1800 deaths per year. In the US, the government has initiated legal action against the pharmaceutical company

910:

Joanna Moncrieff has argued that antipsychotic drug treatment is often undertaken as a means of control rather than to treat specific symptoms experienced by the patient. Moncreiff has further argued, in the controversial and

1130: 692:

The exclusion of affective components from the criteria for schizophrenia, despite their ubiquity in clinical settings, has also caused contention. This exclusion in the DSM has resulted in a "rather convoluted" separate

6026: 638:, and with a relatively high prevalence of psychotic experiences, mostly non-distressing delusional beliefs, among the general public. In concordance with this observation, psychologist Edgar Jones, and psychiatrists 1079:

between doctor and patient", and advocates of anti-psychiatry claim a subjective diagnostic process, leaving much room for opinions and interpretations. Every society, including liberal Western society, permits

3910:

Reports indicate that ADHD affects 2.5%–5% of adults in the general population, compared with 5%–7% of children. ... However, fewer than 20% of adults with ADHD are currently diagnosed and/or treated by

513:

As of 2020, within psychiatry, historically underrepresented groups continue to be less represented as residents, faculty, and practicing physicians in comparison to their proportion in the U.S. population.

210:, or treatment. Medicalization can be driven by new evidence or hypotheses about conditions, by changing social attitudes or economic considerations, or by the development of new medications or treatments. 5671: 1098:

have arguably been over-prescribed, leading to a claimed epidemic of dependence. These are a few of the arguments that the anti-psychiatry movement use to highlight the harms of psychiatric practice.

105:

argued that mental illness was merely another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists, behavioral psychologists challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unchallengable or

875:

used as punishment or as a threat to keep the patients "in line". Since then, ECT has improved considerably, and is now performed under general anesthesia in a medically supervised environment.

429:, disorders meant to explain why slaves ran away and why they were lazy or lacked a strong work ethic, respectively, and justify the institution of slavery. Prominent political figures such as 4793: 701:, some psychiatrists have totally contested the concept of schizoaffective disorder as a separate entity. The categorical distinction between mood disorders and schizophrenia, known as the 4560: 5020: 2657:

Wyse, Rhea; Hwang, Wei-Ting; Ahmed, Awad A.; Richards, Erica; Deville, Curtiland (2020-10-01). "Diversity by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex within the US Psychiatry Physician Workforce".

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in 1949. The lobotomy fell out of favor in by 1960s and 1970s. Other forms of ablative psychosurgery were in use in the UK in the late 1970s to treat psychotic and mood disorders.

311:, whereby the idea of aging and dying as medical illnesses effectively "medicalized" human life and left individuals and societies less able to deal with these natural processes. 539:. Homosexuality was considered a mental illness but due to changing attitudes, it is no longer recognised as an illness. Historic disorders that are no longer recognised include 280:

increasingly sophisticated technology had extended the potential reach of medicalization as a form of social control, especially in terms of "psychotechnology" (Chorover, 1973).

838:

reported on papers questioning the effects of lobotomy on personality and intelligence. The lobotomy was prominently depicted a means to control nonconformity in the 1962 book

248:

The concept of medicalization was devised by sociologists to explain how medical knowledge is applied to behaviors which are not self-evidently medical or biological. The term

333:

Some argue that in practice the process of medicalization tends to strip subjects of their social context, so they come to be understood in terms of the prevailing biomedical

245:). For example, in 2013, Allen Frances said that "psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests". 233:, have "been accusing psychiatry of engaging in the systematic medicalization of normality". More recently these concerns have come from insiders who have worked for the 741:, while acknowledging the controversy, states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature. In 2014, 1039:

resulted in a group of university faculty members sending a public letter to the university Board of Regents urging an external investigation into Markingson's death.

997:, the company's antipsychotic drug. Biederman has responded saying that the money did not influence him and that he did not promote a specific diagnosis or treatment. 886:

The most common side effects of ECT include headache, muscle soreness, confusion, and temporary loss of recent memory. Patients may also experience permanent amnesia.

2802: 1134: 775:, which has raised concern that some players are mimicking or falsifying the symptoms or history of ADHD to get around the ban on the use of stimulants in sport. 5161: 2861: 673:

that are alternatives to those that are purely symptom-based. These deficits take the form of a reduction or impairment in basic psychological functions such as

408:

The history of racism in psychiatry dates back to the days of slavery and segregation in the United States. Such racism in psychiatry exemplifies the concept of

731: 363:

Examples of political abuse of the power, entrusted in physicians and particularly psychiatrists, are abundant in history and seen during the Nazi era and the

5143: 737:

Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children, the method of diagnosis, and the possibility of overdiagnosis. In 2012, the

110: 4916: 1492:"...one finds two non-intersecting conceptual universes: that of psychiatry and traumatology-unrealistic, un-challengable and essentially unfalsifiable..." 6011: 5769: 5200: 1101:

Multiple authors are well known for the movement against psychiatry, including those who have been practicing psychiatrists. The most influential was

828:

In the US, the lobotomy, while initially received with positivity in the late 1930s, came to be seen more negative in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

879: 738: 604:

said that he believes that "psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests".

397: 364: 3605: 3743:

Faraone, Stephen V (2005). "The scientific foundation for understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as a valid psychiatric disorder".

3587: 1877: 1864: 4576: 4251:

Diefenbach, Gretchen J.; Diefenbach, Donald; Baumeister, Alan; West, Mark (1999-04-01). "Portrayal of Lobotomy in the Popular Press: 1935–1960".

152: 3468:

Malhi GS, Green M, Fagiolini A, Peselow ED, Kumari V (February 2008). "Schizoaffective disorder: diagnostic issues and future recommendations".

502:

published in 1999, in which she profiles Black psychiatrists who were influential in American psychiatry and their experiences in the profession

291:

put forth one of the earliest uses of the term "medicalization". Illich, a philosopher, argued that the medical profession harms people through

5490: 2390: 2304: 295:, a process in which illness and social problems increase due to medical intervention. Illich saw iatrogenesis occurring on three levels: the 5610: 4562:

The use of electroconvulsive therapy: Understanding NICE guidance – information for service users, their advocates and carers, and the public

1154: 1125:

challenged the very basis of psychiatric practice and cast it as repressive and controlling. The term "anti-psychiatry" itself was coined by

1033:

protections for research subjects. A 2005 FDA investigation cleared the university. Nonetheless, controversy around the case has continued.

771:

players had been diagnosed with ADHD, making the disorder common among this population. The increase coincided with the League's 2006 ban on

337:, resulting in a disregard for overarching social causes such as unequal distribution of power and resources. A series of publications by 4790:"The Relationship between Psychiatrists, College of Psychiatrists of Ireland and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Position Paper EAP04/2013" 993:

gave more than $ 700,000 to a research center that was headed by Biederman from 2002 to 2005, where research was conducted, in part, on

2153: 840: 58:

is a group of psychiatrists who are critical of psychiatry. Additionally, there are self-described psychiatric survivor groups such as

5520: 4844:

Moncrieff J (2006). "Why is it so difficult to stop psychiatric drug treatment? It may be nothing to do with the original problem".

1526: 1176:. Chamberlin was an ex-patient and co-founder of the Mental Patients' Liberation Front. Coalescing around the ex-patient newsletter 1020:. Writing on the circumstances surrounding Markingson's death in the study, which was designed and funded by Seroquel manufacturer 381: 1042:

Pharmaceutical companies have also been accused of attempting to set the mental health agenda through activities such as funding

449:

compared disproportionate numbers of brains from Black and white individuals to support their racial agendas based on "science."

389: 2778:

Overdiagnosis in Psychiatry: How Modern Psychiatry Lost Its Way While Creating a Diagnosis for Almost All of Life's Misfortunes

1815:"Medicine as a corporate enterprise, patient welfare centered profession, or patient welfare centered professional enterprise?" 5094: 3787: 307:, whereby the general public is made docile and reliant on the medical profession to cope with life in their society; and the 5475: 5457: 5439: 5421: 5303: 5240: 4570: 4424: 4312: 4011: 3986: 3728: 3615: 3563: 3352: 3301: 2914: 2844: 2786: 2366: 2280: 2205: 2178: 1999: 1969: 1942: 1901: 1762: 1671: 1564: 1485: 1458: 1381: 1349: 1322: 722:

in Ionia, Michigan disproportionately diagnosed African Americans with schizophrenia because of their civil rights activism.

5686: 3844: 412:, which falsely alleges that science and other empirical evidence supports racism and proves certain racial inferiorities. 54:

In addition, there are a number of groups who are either critical towards psychiatry or entirely hostile to the field. The

2806: 1029:

psychiatrist, Dr. Stephen C. Olson, oversights and biases in AstraZeneca's trial design, and the inadequacy of university

5691: 3421:"Schizoaffective disorder merges schizophrenia and bipolar disorders as one disease—there is no schizoaffective disorder" 5033: 4946: 5650: 1090:

is a therapy method, which was used widely between the 1930s and 1960s and is, in a modified form, still in use today.

5319:

Rissmiller DJ, Rissmiller JH (2006-06-01). "Evolution of the antipsychiatry movement into mental health consumerism".

5176: 2876: 6056: 5764: 5716: 5230: 3403: 2710:"Hidden from history? A brief modern history of the psychiatric "treatment" of lesbian and bisexual women in England" 2587: 1738: 639: 174: 3260:

Andreasen NC (September 1999). "A unitary model of schizophrenia: Bleuler's "fragmented phrene" as schizencephaly".

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Black psychiatrists often experienced racism as practitioners within the field. Some of this history is detailed in

464:

remain in decent condition. At the beginning of the 20th century, Black people were disproportionally sterilized in

1189: 1008:

while enrolled in an industry-sponsored pharmaceutical trial comparing three FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics:

234: 89:

for "fools' tower" — was one of the earliest buildings specifically designed as a "madhouse". It was built in 1784.

4122: 5976: 5759: 5701: 4924: 4027:

Schonwald A, Lechner E (April 2006). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: complexities and controversies".

373: 5068: 751:. In contrast, a 2014 peer-reviewed medical literature review indicated that ADHD is underdiagnosed in adults. 5625: 4818: 4328:

Tang, Wai-Kwong; Ungvari, Gabor S. (January 2001). "Asystole during electroconvulsive therapy: a case report".

3721:

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults

3262: 2935: 1160: 896: 745:, one of the early advocates for recognition of the disorder, spoke out against overdiagnosis in an article in 156: 109:

concepts, and gay rights activists criticized the APA's inclusion of homosexuality as a mental disorder in the

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justifies the presumption of a biological cause for this behavior rather than the existence of any evidence.

552: 465: 385: 354: 238: 2540: 2494: 2450: 2408: 2319: 2233: 582:

are seen as not very factual and very value-laden while delirium is quite factual and not very value-laden.

5746: 5681: 5583: 2021: 1687:

Conrad P (October 1975). "The discovery of hyperkinesis: notes on the medicalization of deviant behavior".

1531: 1054: 548: 3872:"Underdiagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients: a review of the literature" 665:

schizophrenia. Neuropsychologist Michael Foster Green went further in suggesting the presence of specific

5835: 5736: 5696: 5593: 5563: 5553: 1922: 1225: 1126: 1075: 556: 532: 55: 6006: 5996: 5915: 5741: 1615: 1193: 1117: 1030: 1025: 628: 434:

systems of slavery and racism, further constraining the rights, freedom, and humanity of Black people.

273: 257: 63: 5731: 5543: 4636: 4448: 1087: 871: 607: 595: 59: 32: 3504: 615:

social control, and that the belief in the biological basis for schizophrenia is maintained through

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Ma, Shuo; Zhang, Chencheng; Yuan, Ti-fei; Steele, Douglas; Voon, Valerie; Sun, Bomin (2020-03-01).

1043: 852: 789: 694: 657: 528: 469: 458: 5620: 5558: 4196:"Neurosurgical treatment for addiction: lessons from an untold story in China and a path forward" 3138:

Jones E (1999). "The Phenomenology of Abnormal Belief: A Philosophical and Psychiatric Inquiry".

1034: 1005: 1001: 426: 145: 3060:

Johns LC, van Os J (2001). "The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population".

5951: 5880: 5706: 5578: 5568: 3101: 3017: 2933:

Tsuang MT, Stone WS, Faraone SV (2000). "Toward reformulating the diagnosis of schizophrenia".

2107: 822: 799: 702: 698: 666: 393: 24: 1475: 6021: 6016: 5655: 5630: 5573: 5137: 3925:"The importance of relative standards in ADHD diagnoses: evidence based on exact birth dates" 2195: 1989: 1959: 1934: 1930: 1661: 954: 818: 768: 713: 653: 591: 564: 507: 265: 82: 48: 28: 1891: 1239: 1220: 810: 5910: 5751: 5605: 4977: 4097: 3808:

Cormier E (October 2008). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and update".

3425: 1540: 1080: 990: 926: 719: 579: 338: 5865: 4996: 4505:

Fink, M; Taylor, MA (18 July 2007). "Electroconvulsive therapy: evidence and challenges".

3371: 3302:"Competing definitions of schizophrenia: what can be learned from polydiagnostic studies?" 3115: 3096: 2972:"A dimensional and categorical architecture for the classification of psychotic disorders" 202:, is the process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as 8: 5645: 5640: 3015:(2002). "Psychotic symptoms in non-clinical populations and the continuum of psychosis". 2162: 560: 207: 118: 114: 4540: 4147:"Ethical considerations of psychosurgery: The unhappy legacy of the prefrontal lobotomy" 1987: 856: 5971: 5676: 5344: 4672: 4484: 4353: 4228: 4195: 4171: 4146: 4052: 4040: 3949: 3924: 3896: 3871: 3768: 3693: 3668: 3581: 3536: 3450: 3328: 3242: 3042: 2988: 2971: 2739: 2690: 2639: 2560: 2514: 2470: 2428: 2384: 2339: 2298: 2253: 2129: 2102: 2045: 2016: 1841: 1814: 1704: 1637: 1610: 1293: 930: 917: 900: 747: 682: 540: 325:

society. They argued that medicine disguised the underlying causes of disease, such as

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Since the 1960s there have been challenges to the concept of

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(2013). 1131:non-psychiatric approach 1044:consumer advocacy groups 853:William Beecher Scoville 790:History of psychosurgery 695:schizoaffective disorder 559:. New disorders include 459:Compulsory sterilization 453:Compulsory sterilization 115:Professor David Rosenhan 5621:Positive disintegration 5559:Hearing Voices Movement 5298:. New York: Hawthorne. 5235:. John Wiley and Sons. 5113:(inactive 2024-09-19). 4200:National Science Review 3685:10.1136/adc.2004.064576 3394:Green, Michael (2001). 2036:10.4103/0019-5545.70971 1832:10.4103/0973-1229.27881 1135:psychological suffering 1050:doctors and hospitals. 1018:Risperdal (risperidone) 1002:University of Minnesota 901:psychotropic substances 725: 667:neurocognitive deficits 623:Schizophrenia diagnosis 535:depending on society's 345:capitalist enterprise. 119:the Rosenhan experiment 16:Criticism of psychiatry 5952:Anatomy of an Epidemic 5707:Hearing Voices Network 5579:Martha Mitchell effect 5569:Involuntary commitment 4519:10.1001/jama.298.3.330 4123:"Biomedical Therapies" 3102:Schizophrenia Bulletin 3018:Schizophrenia Research 2357:Rusert, Britt (2017). 2197:Psychiatry at a glance 2108:Schizophrenia Bulletin 1890:Noll, Richard (2007). 1751:Helman, Cecil (2007). 823:Deep brain stimulation 800:deep brain stimulation 703:Kraepelinian dichotomy 699:interrater reliability 600:In 2013, psychiatrist 427:dysesthesia aethiopica 394:sluggish schizophrenia 192: 90: 6022:The Radical Therapist 6017:The Protest Psychosis 5656:Therapeutic community 5631:Psychoanalytic theory 5574:Involuntary treatment 5397:About Us — MFI Portal 5203:. WHO. Archived from 3604:Parrillo, VN (2008), 3524:10.1192/bjp.186.5.364 3320:10.1093/schbul/sbl065 2121:10.1093/schbul/sbp119 1929:. Zed Books. p. 1660:White, Kevin (2002). 1555:Kirk, Stuart (2013). 1010:Seroquel (quetiapine) 1004:research participant 991:Johnson & Johnson 955:Eli Lilly and Company 929:for allegedly paying 927:Johnson & Johnson 819:Bilateral cingulotomy 769:Major League Baseball 714:The Protest Psychosis 592:Biological psychiatry 580:personality disorders 565:binge eating disorder 508:Civil Rights Movement 190: 77: 49:insulin shock therapy 5606:Nouthetic counseling 5364:Psychiatric Services 5321:Psychiatric Services 5261:Psychiatric Services 4762:10.1192/apt.12.3.228 3888:10.4088/PCC.13r01600 3610:, SAGE, p. 63, 3426:Curr Opin Psychiatry 2087:10.1192/pb.26.12.443 2074:Psychiatric Bulletin 1819:Mens Sana Monographs 1666:. 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London: Arnold. 918:Medical Hypotheses 830:The New York Times 811:António Egas Moniz 748:The New York Times 683:executive function 541:orthorexia nervosa 237:themselves (e.g., 204:medical conditions 193: 91: 25:detaining citizens 6044: 6043: 6038:Psychiatry portal 6002:The Gene Illusion 5906:Elizabeth Packard 5866:Peter C. Gøtzsche 5851:Leonard Roy Frank 5791:Giorgio Antonucci 5477:978-0-471-24531-5 5459:978-0-8036-0280-9 5441:978-0-19-507420-8 5430:Guze, SB (1992), 5423:978-0-7619-7138-2 5305:978-0-8015-5523-7 5242:978-1-119-99612-5 5207:on March 14, 2014 4572:978-1-84257-284-9 4426:978-1-58562-032-6 4314:978-0-472-11944-8 4013:978-1-58562-131-6 3988:978-0-674-03163-0 3730:978-1-85433-471-8 3617:978-1-4129-4165-5 3565:978-0-8070-8593-6 3470:Bipolar Disorders 3157:David AS (1999). 2916:978-0-415-04096-9 2846:978-0-19-280727-4 2809:on 16 March 2017. 2788:978-0-19-750427-7 2368:978-1-4798-0470-2 2282:978-1-4696-3288-9 2207:978-1-4051-2404-1 2180:978-92-823-4595-5 2001:978-90-247-1780-4 1971:978-1-85775-947-1 1944:978-1-85649-104-4 1903:978-0-8160-6405-2 1764:978-0-340-91450-2 1673:978-0-7619-6400-1 1629:10.1002/wps.20027 1566:978-1-4128-4976-0 1487:978-1-4757-2672-5 1460:978-1-4441-6865-5 1383:978-3-319-34595-6 1351:978-1-137-27744-2 1324:978-0-8135-4169-3 1200:as its director. 1163:arose out of the 1139:Giorgio Antonucci 957:'s antipsychotic 764:severe symptoms. 533:changed over time 490:In the profession 444:Scientific racism 438:Scientific racism 410:scientific racism 327:social inequality 283:In the 1975 book 200:medical sociology 185: 184: 177: 6064: 5896:Joanna Moncrieff 5756:Paranoia Network 5523: 5516: 5509: 5500: 5499: 5494: 5488: 5480: 5462: 5444: 5426: 5412:Gask, L (2004), 5399: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5256: 5247: 5246: 5226: 5217: 5216: 5214: 5212: 5197: 5191: 5190: 5188: 5187: 5181: 5166: 5157: 5148: 5147: 5141: 5133: 5131: 5130: 5121:. Archived from 5090: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5065: 5059: 5058: 5056: 5054: 5043: 5037: 5030: 5024: 5018: 5012: 5011: 5009: 5007: 4992: 4986: 4985: 4973: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4957: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4933: 4932: 4913: 4907: 4906: 4904: 4903: 4888: 4882: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4841: 4835: 4834: 4832: 4830: 4814: 4808: 4807: 4805: 4804: 4798: 4786: 4775: 4774: 4764: 4740: 4734: 4733: 4723: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4632: 4626: 4625: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4587: 4581: 4575:, archived from 4557: 4551: 4550: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4502: 4493: 4492: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4412: 4406: 4400: 4389: 4388: 4368: 4362: 4361: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4298: 4285: 4284: 4248: 4242: 4241: 4231: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4174: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4134: 4133: 4118: 4112: 4111: 4109: 4108: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4067: 4061: 4060: 4024: 4018: 4017: 3999: 3993: 3992: 3974: 3963: 3962: 3952: 3920: 3914: 3913: 3899: 3867: 3861: 3860: 3858: 3856: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3805: 3796: 3795: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3716: 3707: 3706: 3696: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3637: 3628: 3627: 3626: 3624: 3601: 3592: 3591: 3585: 3577: 3558:. Beacon Press. 3551: 3545: 3544: 3526: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3465: 3459: 3458: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3374: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3331: 3297: 3288: 3287: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3204: 3184: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3174: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3118: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3008: 3002: 3001: 2991: 2976:World Psychiatry 2967: 2961: 2960: 2930: 2921: 2920: 2900: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2887: 2881: 2866: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2832: 2811: 2810: 2799: 2793: 2792: 2772: 2766: 2765: 2754: 2748: 2747: 2729: 2705: 2699: 2698: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2624:Psychiatric News 2615: 2602: 2601: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2545:Psychiatric News 2536: 2523: 2522: 2499:Psychiatric News 2490: 2479: 2478: 2455:Psychiatric News 2446: 2437: 2436: 2413:Psychiatric News 2404: 2395: 2394: 2388: 2380: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2324:Psychiatric News 2315: 2309: 2308: 2302: 2294: 2268: 2262: 2261: 2238:Psychiatric News 2229: 2212: 2211: 2191: 2185: 2184: 2160: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2132: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2089: 2065: 2059: 2058: 2048: 2038: 2012: 2006: 2005: 1985: 1976: 1975: 1955: 1949: 1948: 1919: 1908: 1907: 1887: 1881: 1874: 1868: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1844: 1834: 1810: 1804: 1803: 1775: 1769: 1768: 1748: 1742: 1727: 1721: 1720: 1684: 1678: 1677: 1657: 1651: 1650: 1640: 1616:World Psychiatry 1606: 1597: 1596: 1588: 1579: 1578: 1552: 1546: 1544: 1522: 1516: 1508:Independent Lens 1499: 1493: 1491: 1471: 1465: 1464: 1444: 1435: 1434: 1394: 1388: 1387: 1367: 1356: 1355: 1335: 1329: 1328: 1308: 1302: 1301: 1283: 1259: 1253: 1252: 1242: 1216: 1123:Michael Foucault 1108:The Divided Self 986:Joseph Biederman 857:Petter Lindström 762: 718:argues that the 617:secondary source 586:Biological basis 545:sexual addiction 272:), and Szasz's " 180: 173: 169: 166: 160: 137: 129: 6072: 6071: 6067: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6062: 6061: 6047: 6046: 6045: 6040: 6031: 5967:Crazy Therapies 5947:Against Therapy 5935: 5931:Robert Whitaker 5926:Stephen Ticktin 5861:James Gottstein 5846:Michel Foucault 5831:Judi Chamberlin 5826:Ted Chabasinski 5811:Richard Bentall 5806:Lauretta Bender 5796:Franco Basaglia 5774: 5660: 5532: 5530:Anti-psychiatry 5527: 5497: 5482: 5481: 5478: 5460: 5442: 5424: 5407: 5402: 5395: 5391: 5360: 5356: 5317: 5313: 5306: 5292: 5288: 5257: 5250: 5243: 5227: 5220: 5210: 5208: 5199: 5198: 5194: 5185: 5183: 5179: 5164: 5158: 5151: 5135: 5134: 5128: 5126: 5091: 5087: 5077: 5075: 5067: 5066: 5062: 5052: 5050: 5044: 5040: 5031: 5027: 5019: 5015: 5005: 5003: 4993: 4989: 4974: 4965: 4955: 4953: 4943: 4939: 4930: 4928: 4915: 4914: 4910: 4901: 4899: 4889: 4885: 4877: 4873: 4846:Med. Hypotheses 4842: 4838: 4828: 4826: 4815: 4811: 4802: 4800: 4796: 4788: 4787: 4778: 4741: 4737: 4692: 4688: 4633: 4629: 4602:J Affect Disord 4597: 4593: 4585: 4583: 4579: 4573: 4559: 4558: 4554: 4539: 4538: 4534: 4503: 4496: 4445: 4441: 4427: 4413: 4409: 4401: 4392: 4369: 4365: 4326: 4322: 4315: 4299: 4288: 4249: 4245: 4192: 4188: 4143: 4139: 4131: 4129: 4119: 4115: 4106: 4104: 4096: 4095: 4091: 4081: 4079: 4068: 4064: 4025: 4021: 4014: 4000: 3996: 3989: 3975: 3966: 3921: 3917: 3868: 3864: 3854: 3852: 3841: 3837: 3806: 3799: 3784: 3780: 3741: 3737: 3731: 3717: 3710: 3665: 3661: 3638: 3631: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3602: 3595: 3579: 3578: 3566: 3552: 3548: 3510:Br J Psychiatry 3501: 3497: 3466: 3462: 3417: 3413: 3406: 3392: 3388: 3349: 3345: 3314:(5): 1178–200. 3298: 3291: 3258: 3254: 3225:(2–3): 106–12. 3215: 3211: 3202: 3200: 3185: 3181: 3172: 3170: 3155: 3151: 3136: 3132: 3093: 3089: 3058: 3054: 3009: 3005: 2968: 2964: 2931: 2924: 2917: 2901: 2894: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2864: 2858: 2854: 2847: 2833: 2814: 2801: 2800: 2796: 2789: 2773: 2769: 2756: 2755: 2751: 2706: 2702: 2655: 2651: 2616: 2605: 2590: 2576: 2572: 2537: 2526: 2491: 2482: 2447: 2440: 2405: 2398: 2382: 2381: 2369: 2355: 2351: 2316: 2312: 2296: 2295: 2283: 2275:. Chapel Hill. 2269: 2265: 2230: 2215: 2208: 2192: 2188: 2181: 2158: 2150: 2146: 2099: 2095: 2080:(12): 443–444. 2066: 2062: 2013: 2009: 2002: 1986: 1979: 1972: 1956: 1952: 1945: 1920: 1911: 1904: 1888: 1884: 1875: 1871: 1862: 1858: 1811: 1807: 1776: 1772: 1765: 1749: 1745: 1728: 1724: 1685: 1681: 1674: 1658: 1654: 1607: 1600: 1589: 1582: 1567: 1553: 1549: 1523: 1519: 1500: 1496: 1488: 1472: 1468: 1461: 1445: 1438: 1395: 1391: 1384: 1368: 1359: 1352: 1336: 1332: 1325: 1309: 1305: 1260: 1256: 1217: 1210: 1206: 1170:Judi Chamberlin 1157: 1151: 1072:anti-psychiatry 1068: 1066:Anti-psychiatry 1062: 1060:Anti-psychiatry 1057: 973:. In addition, 892: 869: 792: 786: 781: 760: 734: 728: 687:problem solving 650:Nancy Andreasen 631: 625: 598: 588: 525: 520: 498:'s book titled 496:Jeanne Spurlock 492: 479: 461: 455: 446: 440: 431:John C. Calhoun 418: 406: 357: 351: 349:Political abuse 319:Vicente Navarro 198:, a concept in 181: 170: 164: 161: 150: 138: 127: 97:. Sociologists 72: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6070: 6060: 6059: 6042: 6041: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5987:Mad in America 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5943: 5941: 5937: 5936: 5934: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5911:Sascha Scatter 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5856:Erving Goffman 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5782: 5780: 5776: 5775: 5773: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5712:Icarus Project 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5668: 5666: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5636:Recovery model 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5602: 5601: 5596: 5589:Medicalization 5586: 5584:Medical ethics 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5540: 5538: 5534: 5533: 5526: 5525: 5518: 5511: 5503: 5496: 5495: 5476: 5463: 5458: 5445: 5440: 5427: 5422: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5400: 5389: 5354: 5311: 5304: 5286: 5248: 5241: 5218: 5192: 5149: 5085: 5060: 5038: 5036:" Mother Jones 5025: 5013: 4987: 4963: 4937: 4908: 4883: 4871: 4836: 4809: 4776: 4755:(3): 228–237. 4735: 4706:(7403): 1363. 4686: 4627: 4591: 4571: 4552: 4532: 4494: 4439: 4425: 4407: 4405:, p. 282. 4390: 4363: 4336:(3): 382–385. 4320: 4313: 4286: 4243: 4206:(3): 702–712. 4186: 4157:(3): 149–154. 4137: 4113: 4102:NobelPrize.org 4089: 4062: 4035:(2): 189–195. 4019: 4012: 3994: 3987: 3964: 3935:(5): 641–656. 3915: 3911:psychiatrists. 3862: 3835: 3816:(5): 345–357. 3810:J Pediatr Nurs 3797: 3778: 3735: 3729: 3708: 3679:(2): 192–194. 3659: 3629: 3616: 3593: 3564: 3546: 3495: 3460: 3411: 3404: 3386: 3358:Schizophr Bull 3343: 3307:Schizophr Bull 3289: 3252: 3209: 3179: 3149: 3130: 3109:(4): 1005–22. 3087: 3068:(8): 1125–41. 3052: 3025:(1–2): 59–65. 3003: 2962: 2943:(7): 1041–50. 2922: 2915: 2892: 2852: 2845: 2812: 2794: 2787: 2767: 2749: 2720:(4): 289–290. 2700: 2665:(5): 523–530. 2649: 2603: 2588: 2570: 2524: 2480: 2438: 2396: 2367: 2349: 2310: 2281: 2263: 2213: 2206: 2186: 2179: 2144: 2093: 2060: 2029:(3): 203–206. 2007: 2000: 1977: 1970: 1950: 1943: 1909: 1902: 1882: 1869: 1856: 1805: 1786:(6): 1275–85. 1770: 1763: 1743: 1722: 1701:10.2307/799624 1679: 1672: 1652: 1623:(2): 111–112. 1598: 1580: 1565: 1547: 1543:on 2008-03-07. 1517: 1494: 1486: 1466: 1459: 1436: 1409:(2): 213–243. 1389: 1382: 1357: 1350: 1330: 1323: 1303: 1274:(4): 370–382. 1254: 1233:(2): 221–222. 1207: 1205: 1202: 1172:'s 1978 text, 1150: 1147: 1064:Main article: 1061: 1058: 1053:Main article: 946:pharmaceutical 891: 888: 868: 865: 835:Science Digest 785: 782: 780: 777: 757:medicalization 730:Main article: 727: 724: 711:, in his book 709:Jonathan Metzl 697:. Citing poor 627:Main article: 624: 621: 587: 584: 524: 521: 519: 516: 491: 488: 478: 475: 468:programs that 457:Main article: 454: 451: 442:Main article: 439: 436: 417: 414: 405: 402: 378:Czechoslovakia 353:Main article: 350: 347: 250:medicalization 239:Robert Spitzer 231:Stuart A. Kirk 215:David Rosenhan 196:Medicalization 183: 182: 141: 139: 132: 126: 125:Medicalization 123: 99:Erving Goffman 95:mental illness 71: 68: 64:Scientologists 37:antipsychotics 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6069: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6052: 6039: 6034: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5944: 5942: 5938: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5881:Peter Lehmann 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5871:Jacques Lacan 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5816:Peter Breggin 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5801:Ernest Becker 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5777: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5669: 5667: 5665:Organizations 5663: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5600: 5599:medical model 5597: 5595: 5592: 5591: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5524: 5519: 5517: 5512: 5510: 5505: 5504: 5501: 5492: 5486: 5479: 5473: 5469: 5464: 5461: 5455: 5451: 5446: 5443: 5437: 5433: 5428: 5425: 5419: 5415: 5410: 5409: 5398: 5393: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5358: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5327:(6): 863–6 . 5326: 5322: 5315: 5307: 5301: 5297: 5290: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5253: 5244: 5238: 5234: 5233: 5225: 5223: 5206: 5202: 5196: 5182:on 2015-02-07 5178: 5174: 5170: 5163: 5156: 5154: 5145: 5139: 5125:on 2010-04-30 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5105:(3): 147–59. 5104: 5100: 5096: 5089: 5074: 5070: 5064: 5049: 5042: 5035: 5029: 5022: 5017: 5002: 4998: 4991: 4983: 4979: 4972: 4970: 4968: 4952: 4948: 4941: 4927:on 2014-07-20 4926: 4922: 4918: 4912: 4898: 4894: 4887: 4880: 4875: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4852:(3): 517–23. 4851: 4847: 4840: 4824: 4820: 4813: 4799:on 2014-11-04 4795: 4791: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4772: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4739: 4731: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4690: 4683: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4631: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4595: 4582:on 2014-11-29 4578: 4574: 4568: 4564: 4563: 4556: 4548: 4547: 4542: 4536: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4501: 4499: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4443: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4422: 4418: 4411: 4404: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4367: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4324: 4316: 4310: 4306: 4305: 4297: 4295: 4293: 4291: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4247: 4239: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4190: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4141: 4128: 4124: 4117: 4103: 4099: 4093: 4077: 4073: 4066: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4023: 4015: 4009: 4005: 3998: 3990: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3960: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3929:J Health Econ 3926: 3919: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3866: 3850: 3846: 3839: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3804: 3802: 3793: 3789: 3782: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3739: 3732: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3713: 3704: 3700: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3634: 3619: 3613: 3609: 3608: 3600: 3598: 3589: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3561: 3557: 3550: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3511: 3506: 3499: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3433:(4): 365–79. 3432: 3428: 3427: 3422: 3415: 3407: 3405:0-393-70334-7 3401: 3397: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3365:(2): 309–19. 3364: 3360: 3359: 3354: 3347: 3339: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3308: 3303: 3296: 3294: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3264: 3256: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3183: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3126: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3103: 3098: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3056: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3019: 3014: 3007: 2999: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2966: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2937: 2929: 2927: 2918: 2912: 2909:. Routledge. 2908: 2907: 2899: 2897: 2882:on 2015-02-07 2878: 2874: 2870: 2863: 2856: 2848: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2808: 2804: 2798: 2790: 2784: 2780: 2779: 2771: 2763: 2759: 2753: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2704: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2608: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2589:0-89042-411-X 2585: 2581: 2574: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2489: 2487: 2485: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2445: 2443: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2403: 2401: 2392: 2386: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2364: 2360: 2353: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2306: 2300: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2278: 2274: 2267: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2228: 2226: 2224: 2222: 2220: 2218: 2209: 2203: 2199: 2198: 2190: 2182: 2176: 2172: 2171:10.2861/28281 2168: 2164: 2157: 2156: 2148: 2140: 2136: 2131: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2109: 2104: 2097: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2064: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2042: 2037: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2023: 2018: 2011: 2003: 1997: 1993: 1992: 1984: 1982: 1973: 1967: 1963: 1962: 1954: 1946: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1905: 1899: 1895: 1894: 1886: 1879: 1873: 1866: 1860: 1852: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1809: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1774: 1766: 1760: 1756: 1755: 1747: 1740: 1739:0-06-091151-4 1736: 1732: 1726: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1683: 1675: 1669: 1665: 1664: 1656: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1617: 1612: 1605: 1603: 1594: 1587: 1585: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1562: 1558: 1551: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1533: 1528: 1521: 1514: 1510: 1509: 1504: 1498: 1489: 1483: 1479: 1478: 1470: 1462: 1456: 1453:. CRC Press. 1452: 1451: 1443: 1441: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1393: 1385: 1379: 1375: 1374: 1366: 1364: 1362: 1353: 1347: 1343: 1342: 1334: 1326: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1307: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1258: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1227: 1222: 1215: 1213: 1208: 1201: 1199: 1198:David W. Oaks 1195: 1191: 1187: 1186:New York City 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1156: 1146: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1119: 1114: 1110: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1067: 1056: 1051: 1047: 1045: 1040: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 998: 996: 992: 987: 982: 980: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 951: 948:companies in 947: 942: 940: 936: 932: 928: 922: 920: 919: 914: 913:peer reviewed 908: 906: 902: 898: 887: 884: 881: 876: 873: 864: 860: 858: 854: 850: 849:Peter Breggin 845: 843: 842: 837: 836: 831: 826: 824: 820: 816: 813:, received a 812: 808: 803: 801: 796: 795:Psychosurgery 791: 784:Psychosurgery 776: 774: 770: 765: 758: 752: 750: 749: 744: 743:Keith Conners 740: 733: 723: 721: 717: 715: 710: 706: 704: 700: 696: 690: 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 668: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 645: 644:Nassir Ghaemi 641: 637: 630: 620: 618: 612: 609: 605: 603: 602:Allen Frances 597: 593: 583: 581: 576: 572: 568: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 523:Arbitrariness 515: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 487: 483: 474: 471: 467: 460: 450: 445: 435: 432: 428: 424: 413: 411: 401: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 366: 361: 356: 346: 344: 340: 336: 331: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 281: 277: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 246: 244: 243:Allen Frances 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 219:Peter Breggin 216: 211: 209: 205: 201: 197: 189: 179: 176: 168: 158: 154: 148: 147: 142:This section 140: 136: 131: 130: 122: 120: 116: 112: 108: 107:unfalsifiable 104: 103:Thomas Scheff 100: 96: 88: 84: 80: 76: 67: 65: 61: 57: 52: 50: 46: 45:psychosurgery 42: 38: 34: 30: 26: 21: 5957:Anti-Oedipus 5940:Publications 5921:Thomas Szasz 5891:Loren Mosher 5886:Kate Millett 5836:David Cooper 5821:Paula Caplan 5594:of sexuality 5548: 5467: 5449: 5431: 5413: 5392: 5367: 5363: 5357: 5324: 5320: 5314: 5295: 5289: 5264: 5260: 5231: 5209:. Retrieved 5205:the original 5195: 5184:. Retrieved 5177:the original 5172: 5168: 5138:cite journal 5127:. Retrieved 5123:the original 5102: 5098: 5088: 5078:February 14, 5076:. Retrieved 5072: 5063: 5053:February 14, 5051:. Retrieved 5041: 5028: 5016: 5004:. Retrieved 5000: 4990: 4981: 4954:. Retrieved 4950: 4940: 4929:. Retrieved 4925:the original 4920: 4911: 4900:. Retrieved 4896: 4886: 4878: 4874: 4849: 4845: 4839: 4827:. Retrieved 4823:The Guardian 4822: 4812: 4801:. Retrieved 4794:the original 4752: 4748: 4738: 4703: 4699: 4689: 4680: 4647:(2): 54–62. 4644: 4640: 4630: 4605: 4601: 4594: 4584:, retrieved 4577:the original 4561: 4555: 4545: 4535: 4513:(3): 330–2. 4510: 4506: 4459:(2): 54–62. 4456: 4452: 4442: 4416: 4410: 4403:Shorter 1997 4379:(8): 893–5. 4376: 4372: 4366: 4333: 4329: 4323: 4303: 4259:(1): 60–69. 4256: 4252: 4246: 4203: 4199: 4189: 4154: 4150: 4140: 4130:, retrieved 4126: 4116: 4105:. Retrieved 4101: 4092: 4080:. 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New York. 2358: 2352: 2327: 2323: 2313: 2272: 2266: 2241: 2237: 2196: 2189: 2154: 2147: 2115:(1): 33–35. 2112: 2106: 2096: 2077: 2073: 2063: 2026: 2020: 2010: 1990: 1960: 1953: 1926: 1892: 1885: 1872: 1859: 1825:(2): 19–55. 1822: 1818: 1808: 1783: 1779: 1773: 1753: 1746: 1730: 1725: 1695:(1): 12–21. 1692: 1688: 1682: 1662: 1655: 1620: 1614: 1592: 1556: 1550: 1541:the original 1536: 1530: 1520: 1506: 1502: 1497: 1476: 1469: 1449: 1406: 1402: 1392: 1372: 1340: 1333: 1313: 1306: 1271: 1267: 1257: 1230: 1224: 1177: 1173: 1165:civil rights 1158: 1143: 1127:David Cooper 1116: 1113:Thomas Szasz 1106: 1100: 1086: 1076:David Cooper 1069: 1048: 1041: 1036:Mother Jones 1035: 1026:Carl Elliott 999: 983: 943: 923: 916: 909: 893: 885: 877: 870: 861: 846: 839: 833: 829: 827: 804: 793: 766: 753: 746: 735: 712: 707: 691: 648: 632: 613: 606: 599: 575:Thomas Szasz 573: 569: 526: 512: 503: 499: 493: 484: 480: 462: 447: 423:drapetomania 419: 407: 362: 358: 332: 313: 308: 304: 301:side effects 296: 293:iatrogenesis 284: 282: 278: 266:hyperkinesis 262:Thomas Szasz 258:Peter Conrad 249: 247: 227:Thomas Szasz 223:Paula Caplan 212: 194: 171: 162: 151:Please help 146:verification 143: 92: 53: 18: 5916:David Smail 5876:R. 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