X-ray astronomy - Knowledge

1841:, on the other hand, appears to be always X-ray dark. Hardly any X-rays are emitted by red giants. There is a rather abrupt onset of X-ray emission around spectral type A7-F0, with a large range of luminosities developing across spectral class F. Altair is spectral type A7V and Vega is A0V. Altair's total X-ray luminosity is at least an order of magnitude larger than the X-ray luminosity for Vega. The outer convection zone of early F stars is expected to be very shallow and absent in A-type dwarfs, yet the acoustic flux from the interior reaches a maximum for late A and early F stars provoking investigations of magnetic activity in A-type stars along three principal lines. Chemically peculiar stars of spectral type Bp or Ap are appreciable magnetic radio sources, most Bp/Ap stars remain undetected, and of those reported early on as producing X-rays only few of them can be identified as probably single stars. X-ray observations offer the possibility to detect (X-ray dark) planets as they eclipse part of the corona of their parent star while in transit. "Such methods are particularly promising for low-mass stars as a Jupiter-like planet could eclipse a rather significant coronal area." 949:

changed its operating mode depending on (1) measured count rate, (2) ground command, or (3) change in spacecraft telemetry mode. The trigger level was generally set for 8-sigma above background and the sensitivity is 10 erg/cm (1 nJ/m). When a burst trigger is recorded, the instrument switches to record high resolution data, recording it to a 32-kbit memory for a slow telemetry read out. Burst data consist of either 16 s of 8-ms resolution count rates or 64 s of 32-ms count rates from the sum of the 2 detectors. There were also 16 channel energy spectra from the sum of the 2 detectors (taken either in 1, 2, 4, 16, or 32 second integrations). During 'wait' mode, the data were taken either in 0.25 or 0.5 s integrations and 4 energy channels (with shortest integration time being 8 s). Again, the outputs of the 2 detectors were summed.

683: 1070: 961: 1863: 1728: 838:. Constellations are an astronomical device for handling observation and precision independent of current physical theory or interpretation. Astronomy has been around for a long time. Physical theory changes with time. With respect to celestial X-ray sources, X-ray astrophysics tends to focus on the physical reason for X-ray brightness, whereas X-ray astronomy tends to focus on their classification, order of discovery, variability, resolvability, and their relationship with nearby sources in other constellations. 314: 623: 1288: 1653:(in addition to small quantities of heavier elements such as helium, oxygen, and iron), plus the entraining coronal closed magnetic field regions. Evolution of these closed magnetic structures in response to various photospheric motions over different time scales (convection, differential rotation, meridional circulation) somehow leads to the CME. Small-scale energetic signatures such as plasma heating (observed as compact soft X-ray brightening) may be indicative of impending CMEs. 1794: 842: 4803: 1322:. This X-ray emission is primarily produced by magnetic reconnection flares in the stellar coronae, with many small flares contributing to the "quiescent" X-ray emission from these stars. Pre–main sequence stars have large convection zones, which in turn drive strong dynamos, producing strong surface magnetic fields. This leads to the high X-ray emission from these stars, which lie in the saturated X-ray regime, unlike main-sequence stars that show 894: 1102:(AU), and its radio and optical synchrotron emission are strong. Its overall X-ray luminosity rivals the optical emission and could be that of a nonthermal plasma. However, the Crab Nebula appears as an X-ray source that is a central freely expanding ball of dilute plasma, where the energy content is 100 times the total energy content of the large visible and radio portion, obtained from the unknown source. 4815: 2272: 551: 33: 174: 698: 491: 877:, a 25° area of interlocking arcs of Hα emitting filaments. Soft X-rays are emitted by hot gas (T ~ 2–3 MK) in the interior of the superbubble. This bright object forms the background for the "shadow" of a filament of gas and dust. The filament is shown by the overlaid contours, which represent 100 micrometre emission from dust at a temperature of about 30 K as measured by 1501:(USAFA) is the home of the US's only undergraduate satellite program, and has and continues to develop the FalconLaunch sounding rockets. In addition to any direct amateur efforts to put X-ray astronomy payloads into space, there are opportunities that allow student-developed experimental payloads to be put on board commercial sounding rockets as a free-of-charge ride. 1891:

Swift's XRT sees", said Stefan Immler, of the Goddard Space Flight Center. This interaction, called charge exchange, results in X-rays from most comets when they pass within about three times Earth's distance from the Sun. Because Lulin is so active, its atomic cloud is especially dense. As a result, the X-ray-emitting region extends far sunward of the comet.

1352:

corona should systematically change across this transition, perhaps resulting in some discontinuities in the X-ray characteristics around spectral class dM5. However, observations do not seem to support this picture: long-time lowest-mass X-ray detection, VB 8 (M7e V), has shown steady emission at levels of X-ray luminosity (

1483:. "In the most popular theory, X-rays are made by colliding gas streams from two stars so close together that they'd look like a point source to us. But what happens to gas streams that escape to farther distances? The extended hot stuff in the middle of the new image gives demanding new conditions for any theory to meet." 1450: 1435:, despite its Beta designation, and the 17th brightest in the sky. Pollux is a giant orange K star that makes an interesting color contrast with its white "twin", Castor. Evidence has been found for a hot, outer, magnetically supported corona around Pollux, and the star is known to be an X-ray emitter. 1469:

show three distinct structures: an outer, horseshoe-shaped ring about 2 light years in diameter, a hot inner core about 3 light-months in diameter, and a hot central source less than 1 light-month in diameter which may contain the superstar that drives the whole show. The outer ring provides evidence

1351:

Beyond spectral type M5, the classical αω dynamo can no longer operate as the internal structure of dwarf stars changes significantly: they become fully convective. As a distributed (or α) dynamo may become relevant, both the magnetic flux on the surface and the topology of the magnetic fields in the

956:

soft X-ray detectors consisted of 2.5-mm thick × 0.5 cm area Si surface barrier detectors. A 100 mg/cm beryllium foil front window rejected the low energy X-rays and defined a conical FOV of 75° (half-angle). These detectors were passively cooled and operate in the temperature range −35 to

638:

The first X-ray telescope in astronomy was used to observe the Sun. The first X-ray picture (taken with a grazing incidence telescope) of the Sun was taken in 1963, by a rocket-borne telescope. On April 19, 1960, the very first X-ray image of the sun was taken using a pinhole camera on an Aerobee-Hi

1474:

are thought to represent shock waves produced by matter rushing away from the superstar at supersonic speeds. The temperature of the shock-heated gas ranges from 60 MK in the central regions to 3 MK on the horseshoe-shaped outer structure. "The Chandra image contains some puzzles for existing ideas

1086:

From the observed X-ray spectrum, combined with spectral emission results for other wavelength ranges, an astronomical model addressing the likely source of X-ray emission can be constructed. For example, with Scorpius X-1 the X-ray spectrum steeply drops off as X-ray energy increases up to 20 keV,

634:

Satellites are needed because X-rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites. X-ray telescopes (XRTs) have varying directionality or imaging ability based on glancing angle reflection rather

574:

that, rather than being immediately lit while on the ground, was first carried into the upper atmosphere by a gas-filled balloon. Then, once separated from the balloon at its maximum height, the rocket was automatically ignited. This achieved a higher altitude, since the rocket did not have to move

1890:

as it closed to 63 Gm of Earth. For the first time, astronomers can see simultaneous UV and X-ray images of a comet. "The solar wind—a fast-moving stream of particles from the sun—interacts with the comet's broader cloud of atoms. This causes the solar wind to light up with X-rays, and that's what

1560:

X‐ray source counterparts to stars can be identified by calculating the angular separation between source centroids and the position of the star. The maximum allowable separation is a compromise between a larger value to identify as many real matches as possible and a smaller value to minimize the

1017:

Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. In the case of an inconsistency, the general tendency is to try to make minimal modifications to the model to fit the data. In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to total abandonment of a

701:

This light curve of Her X-1 shows long term and medium term variability. Each pair of vertical lines delineate the eclipse of the compact object behind its companion star. In this case, the companion is a two solar-mass star with a radius of nearly four times that of the Sun. This eclipse shows us

1556:

There are inherent difficulties in making X-ray/optical, X-ray/radio, and X-ray/X-ray identifications based solely on positional coincidents, especially with handicaps in making identifications, such as the large uncertainties in positional determinants made from balloons and rockets, poor source

205:

In the late 1930s, the presence of a very hot, tenuous gas surrounding the Sun was inferred indirectly from optical coronal lines of highly ionized species. The Sun has been known to be surrounded by a hot tenuous corona. In the mid-1940s radio observations revealed a radio corona around the Sun.

1656:

The soft X-ray sigmoid (an S-shaped intensity of soft X-rays) is an observational manifestation of the connection between coronal structure and CME production. "Relating the sigmoids at X-ray (and other) wavelengths to magnetic structures and current systems in the solar atmosphere is the key to

1333:

with numerous unrelated field stars. It is often impossible to distinguish members of a young stellar cluster from field-star contaminants using optical and infrared images alone. X-ray emission can easily penetrate moderate absorption from molecular clouds, and can be used to identify candidate

948:

was the first satellite carrying a gamma burst detector which went outside the orbit of Mars. The hard X-ray detectors operated in the range 15–150 keV. The detectors consisted of 23-mm thick × 51-mm diameter CsI(Tl) crystals mounted via plastic light tubes to photomultipliers. The hard detector

667:

X-ray detectors collect individual X-rays (photons of X-ray electromagnetic radiation) and count the number of photons collected (intensity), the energy (0.12 to 120 keV) of the photons collected, wavelength (c. 0.008–8 nm), or how fast the photons are detected (counts per hour), to tell us

469:

Balloon flights can carry instruments to altitudes of up to 40 km above sea level, where they are above as much as 99.997% of the Earth's atmosphere. Unlike a rocket where data are collected during a brief few minutes, balloons are able to stay aloft for much longer. However, even at such

1183:. A rocket flight on that date briefly calibrated its attitude control system when a star sensor pointed the payload axis at Capella (α Aur). During this period, X-rays in the range 0.2–1.6 keV were detected by an X-ray reflector system co-aligned with the star sensor. The X-ray luminosity of 502:

The high-energy focusing telescope (HEFT) is a balloon-borne experiment to image astrophysical sources in the hard X-ray (20–100 keV) band. Its maiden flight took place in May 2005 from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, USA. The angular resolution of HEFT is c. 1.5'. Rather than using a grazing-angle

1540:

With the initial detection of an extrasolar X-ray source, the first question usually asked is "What is the source?" An extensive search is often made in other wavelengths such as visible or radio for possible coincident objects. Many of the verified X-ray locations still do not have readily

1849:

X-ray observations offer the possibility to detect (X-ray dark) planets as they eclipse part of the corona of their parent star while in transit. "Such methods are particularly promising for low-mass stars as a Jupiter-like planet could eclipse a rather significant coronal area."

228:

Through the 1960s, 70s, 80s, and 90s, the sensitivity of detectors increased greatly during the 60 years of X-ray astronomy. In addition, the ability to focus X-rays has developed enormously—allowing the production of high-quality images of many fascinating celestial objects.

117:

and the stars would be prominent X-ray sources, there was no way to verify this because Earth's atmosphere blocks most extraterrestrial X-rays. It was not until ways of sending instrument packages to high altitudes were developed that these X-ray sources could be studied.

1013:

to approximate the observational data. Once potential observational consequences are available they can be compared with experimental observations. Observers can look for data that refutes a model or helps in choosing between several alternate or conflicting models.

177:

NRL scientists J. D. Purcell, C. Y. Johnson, and Dr. F. S. Johnson are among those recovering instruments from a V-2 used for upper atmospheric research above the New Mexico desert. This is V-2 number 54, launched January 18, 1951, (photo by Dr. Richard Tousey,

940:" in February 1992. It passed the south solar pole in June 1994 and crossed the ecliptic equator in February 1995. The solar X-ray and cosmic gamma-ray burst experiment (GRB) had 3 main objectives: study and monitor solar flares, detect and localize cosmic 1521:

Magnetic fields are ubiquitous among stars, yet we do not understand precisely why, nor have we fully understood the bewildering variety of plasma physical mechanisms that act in stellar environments. Some stars, for example, seem to have magnetic fields,

1153:(BH). Supergiant X-ray binaries (SGXBs) are HMXBs in which the compact objects orbit massive companions with orbital periods of a few days (3–15 d), and in circular (or slightly eccentric) orbits. SGXBs show typical the hard X-ray spectra of accreting 1612:

heating, in which sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone. These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient gas in the form of heat. The other is

1425:≥ 10 erg·s or 10 W) and the hottest known with dominant temperatures up to 40 MK. However, the current popular hypothesis involves a merger of a close binary system in which the orbital angular momentum of the companion is transferred to the primary. 1504:

There are major limitations to amateurs observing and reporting experiments in X-ray astronomy: the cost of building an amateur rocket or balloon to place a detector high enough and the cost of appropriate parts to build a suitable X-ray detector.

202:'s rockets to explore the upper atmosphere. "Two years later, he proposed an experimental program in which a rocket might be instrumented to explore the upper atmosphere, including detection of ultraviolet radiation and X-rays at high altitudes". 1599:

of the Sun has an effective temperature of 5,570 K yet its corona has an average temperature of 1–2 × 10 K. However, the hottest regions are 8–20 × 10 K. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct

1061:. This theory is used to explain the presence of anomalously long-lived magnetic fields in astrophysical bodies. If some of the stellar magnetic fields are really induced by dynamos, then field strength might be associated with rotation rate. 136:), the X-ray emission of Scorpius X-1 is 10,000 times greater than its visual emission, whereas that of the Sun is about a million times less. In addition, the energy output in X-rays is 100,000 times greater than the total emission of the 881:. Here the filament absorbs soft X-rays between 100 and 300 eV, indicating that the hot gas is located behind the filament. This filament may be part of a shell of neutral gas that surrounds the hot bubble. Its interior is energized by 1342:

Given the lack of a significant outer convection zone, theory predicts the absence of a magnetic dynamo in earlier A stars. In early stars of spectral type O and B, shocks developing in unstable winds are the likely source of X-rays.

125:, and the detection of extra-terrestrial X-rays has been the primary or secondary mission of multiple satellites since 1958. The first cosmic (beyond the Solar System) X-ray source was discovered by a sounding rocket in 1962. Called 2431:

Harrison FA; Boggs, Steven E.; Bolotnikov, Aleksey E.; Christensen, Finn E.; Cook Iii, Walter R.; Craig, William W.; Hailey, Charles J.; Jimenez-Garate, Mario A.; et al. (2000). Truemper, Joachim E; Aschenbach, Bernd (eds.).

1087:

which is likely for a thermal-plasma mechanism. In addition, there is no radio emission, and the visible continuum is roughly what would be expected from a hot plasma fitting the observed X-ray flux. The plasma could be a

1607:

It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating. The first is

1636:

have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona. In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms.

1244:

the X-ray luminosities and their distribution along the main sequence were not in agreement with the long-favored acoustic heating theories, but were now interpreted as the effect of magnetic coronal heating,

1237:, X-ray emission was recognized as a characteristic feature common to a wide range of stars covering essentially the whole Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. The Einstein initial survey led to significant insights: 3461:

Hatzes AP; Cochran WD; Endl M; Guenther EW; Saar SH; Walker GAH; Yang S; Hartmann M; et al. (2006). "Confirmation of the planet hypothesis for the long-period radial velocity variations of β Geminorum".

527:

A balloon-borne experiment called the High-resolution gamma-ray and hard X-ray spectrometer (HIREGS) observed X-ray and gamma-rays emissions from the Sun and other astronomical objects. It was launched from

779:

is composed of a neutron star accreting matter from a normal star (HZ Herculis) probably due to Roche lobe overflow. X-1 is the prototype for the massive X-ray binaries although it falls on the borderline,

1853:

As X-ray detectors have become more sensitive, they have observed that some planets and other normally X-ray non-luminescent celestial objects under certain conditions emit, fluoresce, or reflect X-rays.

885:(UV) light and stellar winds from hot stars in the Orion OB1 association. These stars energize a superbubble about 1200 lys across which is observed in the visual (Hα) and X-ray portions of the spectrum. 5194: 498:

is a remnant of an exploded star. This image shows the Crab Nebula in various energy bands, including a hard X-ray image from the HEFT data taken during its 2005 observation run. Each image is 6′ wide.

1222:(α CMa). X-ray emission from an enhanced solar-like corona was proposed for the first time. The high temperature of Capella's corona as obtained from the first coronal X-ray spectrum of Capella using 664:

X-ray astronomy detectors have been designed and configured primarily for energy and occasionally for wavelength detection using a variety of techniques usually limited to the technology of the time.

1315:. Stars in this stage (ages <10 million years) produce X-rays in their stellar coronae. However, their X-ray emission is 10 to 10 times stronger than for main-sequence stars of similar masses. 3980: 1561:

probability of spurious matches. "An adopted matching criterion of 40" finds nearly all possible X‐ray source matches while keeping the probability of any spurious matches in the sample to 3%."

1781:

is a type of neutron star with an extremely powerful magnetic field, the decay of which powers the emission of copious amounts of high-energy electromagnetic radiation, particularly X-rays and

928:

For a satellite or space probe to qualify as a deep space X-ray astronomer/explorer or "astronobot"/explorer, all it needs to carry aboard is an XRT or X-ray detector and leave Earth's orbit.

917:). The idea of limiting observation to Earth includes orbiting the Earth. As soon as the observer leaves the cozy confines of Earth, the observer becomes a deep space explorer. Except for 270:

150 rocket launched on June 19, 1962 (UTC) detected the first X-rays emitted from a source outside our solar system (Scorpius X-1). It is now known that such X-ray sources as Sco X-1 are

766:

of lower-energy photons by relativistic electrons, knock-on collisions of fast protons with atomic electrons, and atomic recombination, with or without additional electron transitions.

305:. A rocket launched from the United States will not be able to see sources in the southern sky; a rocket launched from Australia will not be able to see sources in the northern sky. 5231: 1037:

studied by theoreticians involve X-rays and X-ray sources. Many of the beginnings for a theory can be found in an Earth-based laboratory where an X-ray source is built and studied.

1691:, an instantaneous perturbation of the Earth's ionosphere by ionizing soft X-rays. This could not easily be understood at the time because it predated the discovery of X-rays (by 2940:

Kashyap V; Rosner R; Harnden FR Jr.; Maggio A; Micela G; Sciortino S (1994). "X-ray emission on hybrid stars: ROSAT observations of alpha Trianguli Australis and IOTA Aurigae".

635:

than refraction or large deviation reflection. This limits them to much narrower fields of view than visible or UV telescopes. The mirrors can be made of ceramic or metal foil.

1675:

The largest geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a "prehistoric" CME, coincided with the first-observed solar flare, in 1859. The flare was observed visually by

830:. As with sources already successfully modeled by X-ray astrophysics, striving to understand the generation of X-rays by the apparent source helps to understand the Sun, the 746:, although most of the X-ray brightness of the Moon arises from reflected solar X-rays. A combination of many unresolved X-ray sources is thought to produce the observed 796:" associated with ASASSN-20hx, located near the nucleus of galaxy NGC 6297, and noted that the observation represented one of the "very few tidal disruption events with 301:

The largest drawback to rocket flights is their very short duration (just a few minutes above the atmosphere before the rocket falls back to Earth) and their limited

1329:

X-ray emission as an indicator of stellar youth is important for studies of star-forming regions. Most star-forming regions in the Milky Way Galaxy are projected on

1117:

also coincides with the Wind and Coronal Dividing Lines. To explain the drop in X-ray emission across these dividing lines, a number of models have been proposed:

1273:

Current wisdom has it that the massive coronal main sequence stars are late-A or early F stars, a conjecture that is supported both by observation and by theory.

1418:

The FK Com stars are giants of spectral type K with an unusually rapid rotation and signs of extreme activity. Their X-ray coronae are among the most luminous (

1133:

changes in the magnetic dynamo character, leading to the disappearance of stellar fields leaving only small-scale, turbulence-generated fields among red giants.

822:(IAU) constellations are areas of the sky. Each of these contains remarkable X-ray sources. Some of them have been identified from astrophysical modeling to be 2046: 1233:

is discovered to be emitting high-energy radiation in the XUV. In 1978, α Cen was identified as a low-activity coronal source. With the operation of the

1094:

In the Crab Nebula X-ray spectrum there are three features that differ greatly from Scorpius X-1: its spectrum is much harder, its source diameter is in

5248: 3973: 3785: 2262: 4733: 3808: 925:

and the earlier satellites in the series, usually if a probe is going to be a deep space explorer it leaves the Earth or an orbit around the Earth.

511:-silicon multilayer coatings to extend the reflectivity of nested grazing-incidence mirrors beyond 10 keV. HEFT has an energy resolution of 1.0 keV 1211: 259:

section and the rocket was launched in a suborbital flight to an altitude just above the atmosphere. X-rays from the Sun were detected by the U.S.

1759:

is a periodic, radio-emitting binary system that is also the gamma-ray source, CG135+01. Observations are revealing a growing number of recurrent

1660:

The first detection of a Coronal mass ejection (CME) as such was made on December 1, 1971, by R. Tousey of the US Naval Research Laboratory using

4740: 2503:

Feffer, Paul (1996). "Solar energetic ion and electron limits from High-Resolution Gamma-ray and Hard X-ray Spectrometer (HIREGS) Observations".

159:

at a temperature between 100 and 1000 megakelvins (MK). The total amount of hot gas is five to ten times the total mass in the visible galaxies.

3304:

Kastner, J. H.; et al. (2001). "Discovery of Extended X-Ray Emission from the Planetary Nebula NGC 7027 by the Chandra X-Ray Observatory".

1763:, characterized by short outbursts with very fast rise times (tens of minutes) and typical durations of a few hours that are associated with OB 1497:

Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena sometimes with equipment that they build themselves. The

773:(IMXB) is a binary star system where one of the components is a neutron star or a black hole. The other component is an intermediate mass star. 4852: 1359:) ≈ 10 erg·s (10 W) and flares up to an order of magnitude higher. Comparison with other late M dwarfs shows a rather continuous trend. 3654:

Massey P; Silva DR; Levesque EM; Plez B; Olsen KAG; Clayton GC; Meynet G; Maeder A (2009). "Red Supergiants in the Andromeda Galaxy (M31)".

1814: 2975:

Zurita Heras JA; Chaty S (2009). "Discovery of an eccentric 30 day period in the supergiant X-ray binary SAX J1818.6–1703 with INTEGRAL".

3408:

Feigelson, E. D.; et al. (2013). "Overview of the Massive Young Star-Forming Complex Study in Infrared and X-Ray (MYStIX) Project".

3129: 3518: 4074: 1837:

During the solar cycle, as shown in the sequence of images at right, at times the Sun is almost X-ray dark, almost an X-ray variable.

282:. Material falling into a black hole may emit X-rays, but the black hole itself does not. The energy source for the X-ray emission is 5289: 1866:

Image of Comet Lulin on 28 January 2009, when the comet was 99.5 million miles from Earth and 115.3 million miles from the Sun, from

1513:

As X-ray astronomy uses a major spectral probe to peer into the source, it is a valuable tool in efforts to understand many puzzles.

5352: 5299: 1091:

of a central object or a transient plasma, where the energy source is unknown, but could be related to the idea of a close binary.

478:

supernova remnant was discovered to be a hard X-ray (15–60 keV) source by a scintillation counter flown on a balloon launched from

3146:

Preibisch, T.; et al. (2005). "The Origin of T Tauri X-Ray Emission: New Insights from the Chandra Orion Ultradeep Project".

1214:

have been used to search for soft X-ray emission in the energy range ~0.14–0.284 keV from stellar coronae. The experiments aboard

515:

at 60 keV. HEFT was launched for a 25-hour balloon flight in May 2005. The instrument performed within specification and observed

4971: 4452: 2472: 2398: 451:

from White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico on May 1, 2008. The Principal Investigator for the mission is Dr. Dan McCammon of the

5211: 1057:

Dynamo theory describes the process through which a rotating, convecting, and electrically conducting fluid acts to maintain a

1557:

separation in the crowded region toward the galactic center, source variability, and the multiplicity of source nomenclature.

424:

inject enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, which leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures are

5460: 5226: 3779: 2708:

Podsiadlowski P; Rappaport S; Pfahl E (2001). "Evolutionary Binary Sequences for Low- and Intermediate-Mass X-ray Binaries".

2381: 1805:

SXT images, demonstrating the variation in solar activity during a sunspot cycle, from after August 30, 1991, at the peak of

290:

of these and other celestial objects. Based on discoveries in this new field of X-ray astronomy, starting with Scorpius X-1,

317:

A launch of the Black Brant 8 Microcalorimeter (XQC-2) at the turn of the century is a part of the joint undertaking by the

5309: 5304: 1241:

X-ray sources abound among all types of stars, across the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and across most stages of evolution,

1168: 1167:

The mechanism triggering the different temporal behavior observed between the classical SGXBs and the recently discovered

5450: 5382: 5367: 5236: 2561: 2193: 1130:

changes in a magnetic field structure to that an open topology, leading to a decrease of magnetically confined plasma, or

452: 318: 17: 1106: 443:

To measure the spectrum of the diffuse X-ray emission from the interstellar medium over the energy range 0.07 to 1 keV,

109:(K) to hundreds of millions of kelvin (MK). Moreover, the maintenance of the E-layer of ionized gas high in the Earth's 1980: 1767:

and hence define a new class of massive X-ray binaries: Supergiant Fast X-ray Transients (SFXTs). Observations made by

1535: 1215: 536:

in December 1991 and 1992. Steady winds carried the balloon on a circumpolar flight lasting about two weeks each time.

195: 4035: 1248:

stars that are otherwise similar reveal large differences in their X-ray output if their rotation period is different.

4845: 3537: 156: 5455: 5284: 5263: 4571: 3930:

Gopalswamy N; Mikic Z; Maia D; Alexander D; Cremades H; Kaufmann P; Tripathi D; Wang YM (2006). "The pre-CME Sun".

2095: 1380:

others point to coronal activity as in cool stars, in particular the presence of flares and very high temperatures.

819: 1872:. Data from Swift's Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope is shown in blue and green, and from its X-Ray Telescope in red. 763: 482:, United States. This was likely the first balloon-based detection of X-rays from a discrete cosmic X-ray source. 4389: 3757:

Russell CT (2001). "Solar wind and interplanetary magnetic filed: A tutorial". In Song, Paul; Singer, Howard J.;

1498: 659: 474:

is still absorbed. X-rays with energies less than 35 keV (5,600 aJ) cannot reach balloons. On July 21, 1964, the

865:

Within the constellations Orion and Eridanus and stretching across them is a soft X-ray "hot spot" known as the

4067: 1926: 1676: 770: 5445: 5314: 5279: 4675: 1883: 1867: 1523: 3762: 2245: 105:

is expected from astronomical objects that contain extremely hot gases at temperatures from about a million

5377: 5347: 5206: 5179: 4838: 4341: 2838: 2810: 1901: 578:

The original concept of "rockoons" was developed by Cmdr. Lee Lewis, Cmdr. G. Halvorson, S. F. Singer, and

464: 183: 5357: 5324: 5294: 5258: 4964: 1203: 1074: 326: 222: 4030: 3234:

Montmerle, T. (1983). "Einstein observations of the Rho Ophiuchi dark cloud - an X-ray Christmas tree".

2351: 1069: 5403: 5243: 5131: 4818: 4726: 4508: 4300: 3771: 1916: 1826: 1736: 1716: 1617:

heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through

1326:

of X-ray emission. Other sources of X-ray emission include accretion hotspots and collimated outflows.

866: 850: 809: 682: 677: 512: 168: 4747: 4564: 4529: 4522: 4369: 4060: 1768: 1466: 1458: 1266:

the release of energy in tenuous astrophysical plasmas through various plasma-physical processes, and

1079: 727: 593: 374: 260: 244: 84: 5435: 5070: 4770: 4536: 3357:

Pravdo, S. H.; et al. (2001). "Discovery of X-rays from the protostellar outflow object HH2".

1592: 1526:

left over from their period of formation, while others seem to generate the field anew frequently.

1179:

The first detection of stellar x-rays occurred on April 5, 1974, with the detection of X-rays from

1142: 999: 854: 471: 433: 133: 37: 4903: 4631: 4417: 4276: 4255: 4214: 4178: 4146: 4046: 2607: 1936: 1692: 1492: 1476: 731: 711: 210: 96: 76: 1373:

Herbig Ae/Be stars are pre-main sequence stars. As to their X-ray emission properties, some are

357:. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute (by terrestrial standards) mixture of 5440: 5372: 5221: 4957: 4684: 4557: 4550: 4473: 4267: 3199:

Feigelson, E. D.; Decampli, W. M. (1981). "Observations of X-ray emission from T Tauri stars".

2417: 1480: 1432: 1308: 1282: 793: 295: 3522: 3122: 113:

also suggested a strong extraterrestrial source of X-rays. Although theory predicted that the

5332: 5201: 5009: 4654: 4348: 4286: 4139: 4109: 2212: 2210: 1941: 1931: 1700: 1646: 1618: 1570: 1470:

of another large explosion that occurred over 1,000 years ago. These three structures around

1323: 976: 858: 759: 690: 646:

the ability to determine the location at the arrival of an X-ray photon in two dimensions and

72: 41: 3998: 3485: 3282: 2998: 2686: 2075: 1632:

Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except

960: 913:

Usually observational astronomy is considered to occur on Earth's surface (or beneath it in

5169: 5101: 5034: 4646: 4578: 4396: 4334: 4125: 4102: 4095: 3939: 3889: 3854: 3817: 3729: 3673: 3626: 3579: 3481: 3427: 3366: 3323: 3278: 3243: 3208: 3165: 3090: 3046: 2994: 2949: 2919: 2869: 2770: 2727: 2682: 2634: 2579: 2512: 2448: 2302: 2121: 2071: 1319: 1234: 932: 448: 373:, and (galactic) magnetic fields. The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of 354: 287: 3269:

Feigelson, E. D.; Montmerle, T. (1999). "High-Energy Processes in Young Stellar Objects".

3123:"Coronal Evolution of Solar-Like Stars in Star-Forming Regions and the Solar Neighborhood" 8: 5121: 5096: 5075: 4777: 4719: 4515: 4466: 4362: 4309: 4132: 2593: 1911: 992: 642:

The utilization of X-ray mirrors for extrasolar X-ray astronomy simultaneously requires:

605: 425: 334: 148: 122: 64: 3943: 3893: 3858: 3821: 3733: 3677: 3630: 3583: 3431: 3370: 3327: 3247: 3212: 3169: 3094: 3050: 2953: 2923: 2873: 2774: 2731: 2694: 2638: 2516: 2452: 2306: 2211:

Riccardo Giacconi; Herbert Gursky; Frank R. Paolini; Bruno B. Rossi (December 1, 1962).

2125: 1475:

of how a star can produce such hot and intense X-rays," says Prof. Kris Davidson of the

5362: 5141: 5106: 5039: 4938: 4918: 4908: 4806: 4705: 4410: 4380: 4327: 4262: 4210: 4185: 3955: 3689: 3663: 3595: 3497: 3471: 3443: 3417: 3390: 3339: 3313: 3181: 3155: 3077:

Mewe R; Heise J; Gronenschild EHBM; Brinkman AC; Schrijver J; den Boggende AJF (1975).

3010: 2984: 2786: 2743: 2717: 2528: 2464: 2172: 2137: 2087: 2061: 1862: 1546: 1010: 1003: 914: 579: 575:

through the lower thicker air layers that would have required much more chemical fuel.

209:

The beginning of the search for X-ray sources from above the Earth's atmosphere was on

3685: 3556: 2433: 2402: 1771:

indicate the presence of loops and rings in the hot X-ray emitting gas that surrounds

1384:

The nature of these strong emissions has remained controversial with models including

353:

within a galaxy. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding

5410: 5342: 5337: 5164: 5136: 5029: 4928: 4923: 4913: 4712: 4698: 4497: 4482: 4459: 4403: 4171: 3959: 3775: 3693: 3599: 3439: 3382: 2790: 2532: 2468: 2377: 2254: 2091: 1722: 1680: 1368: 1330: 1292: 1099: 902: 755: 715: 571: 291: 199: 92: 3501: 3447: 3394: 3343: 3185: 3014: 2881: 2747: 2176: 2141: 2112:

Grottian W (1939). "Zur Frage der Deutung der Linien im Spektrum der Sonnenkorona".

5126: 5004: 4617: 4596: 4431: 4424: 3947: 3905: 3897: 3862: 3825: 3737: 3681: 3634: 3587: 3489: 3435: 3374: 3331: 3290: 3286: 3251: 3216: 3173: 3098: 3054: 3002: 2957: 2877: 2860:

Kawakatsu Y (December 2007). "Concept study on Deep Space Orbit Transfer Vehicle".

2778: 2735: 2690: 2642: 2520: 2456: 2310: 2220: 2164: 2129: 2079: 1230: 1145:(HMXBs) are composed of OB supergiant companion stars and compact objects, usually 988: 815: 747: 686: 583: 479: 397: 102: 45: 3006: 2834:"Atel #13893: Classification of ASASSN-20hx as a Tidal Disruption Event Candidate" 797: 121:

The existence of solar X-rays was confirmed early in the mid-twentieth century by

5253: 5116: 5080: 4999: 4763: 4438: 4355: 4248: 4192: 3493: 2833: 2805: 1946: 1921: 1760: 1727: 1601: 941: 849:

PSPC false-color image is of a portion of a nearby stellar wind superbubble (the

617: 597: 529: 522: 504: 313: 238: 152: 88: 80: 3880:

Sturrock PA; Uchida Y (1981). "Coronal heating by stochastic magnetic pumping".

3541: 2330: 1190:= 10 erg·s (10 W) is four orders of magnitude above the Sun's X-ray luminosity. 706:

Several types of astrophysical objects emit, fluoresce, or reflect X-rays, from

622: 4893: 4878: 4830: 4610: 4543: 4445: 1810: 1806: 1669: 1614: 1296: 1058: 1026: 984: 957:−55 °C. This detector had 6 energy channels, covering the range 5–20 keV. 937: 751: 735: 707: 393: 218: 3951: 3830: 3803: 3591: 2565: 2524: 2315: 2290: 2224: 2197: 2083: 1633: 1287: 243:

The first sounding rocket flights for X-ray research were accomplished at the

5429: 5174: 4668: 3758: 2434:"Development of the High-Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon experiment" 2276: 2258: 1756: 1454: 1428: 1312: 1199: 1146: 1088: 1046: 385: 302: 191: 187: 147:

Many thousands of X-ray sources have since been discovered. In addition, the

130: 3910: 3570:

Thomas RM; Davison PJN (1974). "A comment on X-ray source identifications".

2761:

Priedhorsky WC; Holt SS (1987). "Long-term cycles in cosmic X-ray sources".

2620: 1984: 1479:. Davidson is principal investigator for the Eta Carina observations by the 1457:, Eta Carinae exhibits a superstar at its center as seen in this image from 554:

Navy Deacon rockoon photographed just after a shipboard launch in July 1956.

5216: 5111: 5024: 5014: 4888: 4873: 4624: 4603: 4221: 3742: 3717: 3386: 1752: 1580: 1300: 1052: 1022: 980: 776: 739: 437: 409: 275: 271: 126: 110: 2621:

Blake, R. L.; Chubb, T. A.; Friedman, H.; Unzicker, A. E. (January 1963).

1793: 5065: 4691: 3476: 3318: 3160: 3076: 2896: 2722: 2066: 1906: 1887: 1877: 1798: 1744: 1684: 1622: 1596: 1545:

becomes a serious concern that results in ever greater demands for finer

1471: 1444: 1259:

Stellar X-ray astronomy is contributing toward a deeper understanding of

1226:

required magnetic confinement unless it was a free-flowing coronal wind.

1150: 1007: 1002:, theoretical X-ray astronomy uses a wide variety of tools which include 882: 723: 719: 601: 495: 475: 429: 350: 342: 68: 2489: 841: 5189: 5055: 4883: 4661: 4638: 4118: 2939: 2782: 2168: 2133: 1838: 1832: 1772: 1764: 1696: 1626: 1542: 1269:

the interactions of high-energy radiation with the stellar environment.

1253: 1110: 1095: 1030: 922: 918: 781: 533: 417: 413: 389: 370: 279: 252: 248: 214: 141: 3557:"AFRL Signs EPA to Educate and Inspire Future Aerospace Professionals" 2460: 1449: 388:

ejection from star surfaces at 10-10 K which emits X-rays. The ISM is

4898: 4862: 4756: 4083: 3378: 2806:"ATel #13895: ASASSN-20hx is a Hard Tidal Disruption Event Candidate" 2430: 1782: 1704: 1157:

and most show strong absorption as obscured HMXBs. X-ray luminosity (

1114: 1034: 421: 256: 56: 3929: 3615:"Nearby Young Solar Analogs. I. Catalog and Stellar Characteristics" 3460: 1121:

low transition region densities, leading to low emission in coronae,

75:, so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by 5060: 3901: 3866: 3639: 3614: 3335: 3255: 3220: 3177: 3103: 3078: 3059: 3034: 2961: 2739: 2647: 2622: 1777: 1550: 906: 831: 823: 508: 366: 3668: 3422: 2989: 893: 5184: 3804:"Magneto-hydrodynamic waves, and the heating of the solar corona" 3653: 2707: 2275:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

1649:(CME) is an ejected plasma consisting primarily of electrons and 1318:

X-ray emission for pre–main-sequence stars was discovered by the

1180: 898: 559: 550: 545: 516: 283: 267: 4949: 4016: 3974:"R.A.Howard, A Historical Perspective on Coronal Mass Ejections" 1362: 5019: 4786: 1802: 1748: 1732: 1650: 1223: 1219: 1207: 1154: 827: 401: 346: 106: 523:

High-resolution gamma-ray and hard X-ray spectrometer (HIREGS)

4994: 4980: 1661: 846: 835: 627: 412:

from young clusters of stars (often with giant or supergiant

60: 4052: 1311:

during the stage of stellar evolution before they reach the

384:

Of interest is the hot ionized medium (HIM) consisting of a

3845:

Parker EN (1988). "Nanoflares and the solar X-ray corona".

3538:"World's first astronautics department celebrates 50 years" 3079:"Detection of X-ray emission from stellar coronae with ANS" 3032: 2213:"EVIDENCE FOR X RAYS FROM SOURCES OUTSIDE THE SOLAR SYSTEM" 1818: 1609: 1006:

to approximate the behavior of a possible X-ray source and

936:

was launched October 6, 1990, and reached Jupiter for its "

878: 743: 697: 444: 405: 362: 322: 173: 32: 4040: 4015:

The content of this article was adapted and expanded from

3535: 1575:

All of the detected X-ray sources at, around, or near the

490: 308: 4933: 4228: 4036:

Is My Favorite Object an X-ray, Gamma-Ray, or EUV Source?

1576: 1202:, are ubiquitous among the stars in the cool half of the 792:

In July 2020, astronomers reported the observation of a "

604:

and X-ray observations at ~30° N ~121.6° W, southwest of

358: 137: 114: 432:

of hot gas. The Sun is currently traveling through the

225:. The first solar X-rays were recorded by T. Burnight. 2974: 660:

X-ray telescope § Detection and imaging of X-rays

2760: 2418:"A Brief History of High-Energy Astronomy: 1960–1964" 2247:

Significant Achievements in Space Astronomy 1958–1964

1529: 1508: 329:

known as the X-ray Quantum Calorimeter (XQC) project.

3718:"Heating of the solar and stellar coronae: a review" 3572:

Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of Australia

3569: 1218:

succeeded in finding X-ray signals from Capella and

826:

or black holes at the centers of galaxies. Some are

4031:

How Many Known X-Ray (and Other) Sources Are There?

3879: 1967:

Significant Achievements in Solar Physics 1958-1964

1591:In the area of solar X-ray astronomy, there is the 3715: 3268: 1672:are now understood as essentially the same thing. 671: 255:on January 28, 1949. A detector was placed in the 3809:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3198: 1124:high-density wind extinction of coronal emission, 485: 286:. Infalling gas and dust is heated by the strong 5427: 4860: 2548:X-ray and Gamma-ray Observations of Solar Flares 1844: 1683:was observed with the recording magnetograph at 888: 36:X-rays start at ~0.008 nm and extend across the 2910:Trimble V (1999). "White dwarfs in the 1990s". 2673:Morrison P (1967). "Extrasolar X-ray Sources". 2623:"Interpretation of X-Ray Photograph of the Sun" 2443:. X-Ray Optics, Instruments, and Missions III. 1755:, with an often resolvable pair of radio jets. 1263:magnetic fields in magnetohydrodynamic dynamos, 742:bodies emit X-rays, the most notable being the 611: 582:during the Aerobee rocket firing cruise of the 129:(Sco X-1) (the first X-ray source found in the 27:Branch of astronomy that uses X-ray observation 3519:"Chandra Takes X-ray Image of Repeat Offender" 2219:. Vol. 9, no. 11. pp. 439–443. 1969:. Washington D.C.: NASA. 1966. pp. 49–58. 1579:appear to be associated with processes in the 970: 4965: 4846: 4068: 3925: 3923: 3921: 2701: 2374:Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium 1409:the presence of unknown late-type companions. 1363:Strong X-ray emission from Herbig Ae/Be stars 1137: 818:has been divided into 88 constellations. The 789:, between high- and low-mass X-ray binaries. 392:and full of structure on all spatial scales. 162: 3116: 3114: 2831: 2399:"36.223 UH MCCAMMON/UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN" 2291:"Nobel Lecture: The dawn of x-ray astronomy" 1815:Institute of Space and Astronautical Science 653: 91:that can see x-ray radiation which standard 3750: 3401: 3271:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 3262: 3227: 3192: 3139: 2968: 2859: 2832:Hinkle, J.T.; et al. (July 24, 2020). 2825: 2797: 2754: 2675:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2344: 1668:or even phenomena observed visually during 1657:understanding their relationship to CMEs." 1431:is the brightest star in the constellation 975:Theoretical X-ray astronomy is a branch of 944:, and in-situ detection of Jovian aurorae. 702:the orbital period of the system, 1.7 days. 4972: 4958: 4853: 4839: 4075: 4061: 3918: 3756: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3035:"Evidence for X-ray emission from Capella" 2935: 2933: 2672: 2600: 2323: 2288: 2188: 2186: 2111: 1586: 1516: 1486: 1461:. Credit: Chandra Science Center and NASA. 1174: 803: 232: 3909: 3844: 3829: 3741: 3667: 3638: 3612: 3513: 3511: 3475: 3421: 3407: 3317: 3297: 3233: 3159: 3145: 3111: 3102: 3058: 3028: 3026: 3024: 2988: 2909: 2853: 2721: 2646: 2409: 2371: 2314: 2155:Keller CU (1995). "X-rays from the Sun". 2154: 2065: 1252:To fit the medium-resolution spectrum of 3873: 3801: 3548: 3350: 3120: 3072: 3070: 3033:Catura RC; Acton LW; Johnson HM (1975). 2655: 2424: 2390: 2282: 2040: 2038: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2022: 1973: 1861: 1792: 1726: 1640: 1564: 1448: 1286: 1276: 1068: 1033:, and other fields that are branches of 991:, emission, and detection as applied to 959: 892: 840: 696: 681: 668:about the object that is emitting them. 621: 549: 489: 404:in size. During their lives and deaths, 312: 172: 31: 3838: 3700: 3303: 2930: 2903: 2586: 2365: 2204: 2183: 2105: 2044: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2004: 2002: 1809:, to September 6, 2001, at the peak of 1710: 1164:) increases up to 10 erg·s (10 watts). 834:as a whole, and how these affect us on 309:X-ray Quantum Calorimeter (XQC) project 14: 5428: 3986:from the original on October 12, 2006. 3966: 3795: 3647: 3606: 3563: 3554: 3508: 3454: 3356: 3021: 2545: 2502: 2482: 1625:and myriad similar but smaller events— 1206:. Experiments with instruments aboard 1127:only cool coronal loops become stable, 1064: 905:that increased its inclination to the 198:explored the possibility of equipping 4953: 4834: 4056: 3990: 3791:from the original on August 28, 2003. 3764:Space Weather (Geophysical Monograph) 3529: 3135:from the original on August 24, 2007. 3067: 2888: 2614: 2572: 2554: 2268:from the original on October 5, 2021. 2148: 2054:The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 1256:, subsolar abundances were required. 897:Ulysses' second orbit: it arrived at 794:hard tidal disruption event candidate 750:. The X-ray continuum can arise from 436:, a denser region in the low-density 345:that pervade interstellar space: the 4814: 2415: 2396: 2047:"X-ray astronomy of stellar coronae" 1999: 1959: 3996: 3536:Department of Astronautics (2008). 2894: 2803: 2695:10.1146/annurev.aa.05.090167.001545 2478:from the original on July 23, 2018. 2238: 1801:: a montage of ten years' worth of 1788: 1346: 592:From July 17 to July 27, 1956, the 24: 1536:Extrasolar X-ray source astrometry 1530:Extrasolar X-ray source astrometry 1509:Major questions in X-ray astronomy 1193: 714:(AGN) to galactic objects such as 649:a reasonable detection efficiency. 408:interact physically with the ISM. 196:Carnegie Institution of Washington 123:V-2s converted to sounding rockets 87:. X-ray astronomy uses a type of 25: 5472: 4979: 4024: 3521:. October 8, 1999. Archived from 1981:"Spacelab 2 NRL Looks at the Sun" 1687:. The same instrument recorded a 1583:, which is its outer atmosphere. 1337: 1198:Coronal stars, or stars within a 1073:Images released to celebrate the 213:GMT. A US Army (formerly German) 4813: 4802: 4801: 4572:Southern African Large Telescope 3999:"NASA's Swift Spies Comet Lulin" 3410:Astrophysical Journal Supplement 3148:Astrophysical Journal Supplement 2594:"Chandra X-ray focusing mirrors" 2270: 1813:. Credit: the Yohkoh mission of 1406:the operation of a shear dynamo, 1307:Newly formed stars are known as 1169:supergiant fast X-ray transients 1075:International Year of Light 2015 979:that deals with the theoretical 820:International Astronomical Union 693:light (released 5 January 2016). 4041:X-ray all-sky survey on WIKISKY 2897:"Explorer Series of Spacecraft" 2882:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.12.019 2539: 2496: 1499:United States Air Force Academy 871:Eridanus Soft X-ray Enhancement 734:), neutron star or black hole ( 672:Astrophysical sources of X-rays 596:(NRL) shipboard launched eight 453:University of Wisconsin–Madison 396:deep inside large complexes of 319:University of Wisconsin–Madison 63:observation and detection from 3291:10.1146/annurev.astro.37.1.363 2804:Lin, Dacheng (July 25, 2020). 1927:List of X-ray space telescopes 1857: 1677:Richard Christopher Carrington 1524:fossil stellar magnetic fields 1465:New X-ray observations by the 1438: 771:intermediate-mass X-ray binary 486:High-energy focusing telescope 263:Blossom experiment on board. 59:which deals with the study of 55:is an observational branch of 13: 1: 4082: 4017:http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/ 3716:Erdèlyi R; Ballai, I (2007). 3236:Astrophysical Journal, Part 1 3201:Astrophysical Journal Letters 2562:"Chronology – Quarter 3 1956" 2550:. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Company. 2194:"Chronology – Quarter 1 1949" 1953: 1884:Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission 1845:X-ray dark planets and comets 1731: 1695:) and the recognition of the 1291:A Chandra X-ray image of the 889:Explorational X-ray astronomy 470:altitudes, much of the X-ray 182:In 1927, E.O. Hulburt of the 5461:Astronomical sub-disciplines 1902:Balloons for X-ray astronomy 612:X-ray telescopes and mirrors 507:, HEFT makes use of a novel 465:Balloons for X-ray astronomy 379:interstellar radiation field 184:US Naval Research Laboratory 7: 3686:10.1088/0004-637X/703/1/420 3613:Gaidos EJ (November 1998). 3007:10.1051/0004-6361:200811179 1894: 1541:discernible sources. X-ray 1413: 1204:Hertzsprung-Russell diagram 971:Theoretical X-ray astronomy 901:on February 8, 1992, for a 798:hard powerlaw X-ray spectra 689:– in high-energy X-ray and 539: 458: 327:Goddard Space Flight Center 223:White Sands Proving Grounds 10: 5477: 5451:Astronomical X-ray sources 5244:X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging 5132:Anomalous X-ray scattering 4008: 3772:American Geophysical Union 3494:10.1051/0004-6361:20065445 3464:Astronomy and Astrophysics 3440:10.1088/0067-0049/209/2/26 2977:Astronomy and Astrophysics 1917:History of X-ray astronomy 1875: 1830: 1827:Astrophysical X-ray source 1824: 1720: 1717:Astrophysical X-ray source 1714: 1664:. Earlier observations of 1568: 1533: 1490: 1442: 1366: 1280: 1171:(SFXT)s is still debated. 1138:Analytical X-ray astronomy 1050: 1044: 1040: 867:Orion-Eridanus Superbubble 851:Orion-Eridanus Superbubble 810:Astrophysical X-ray source 807: 764:inverse Compton scattering 728:cataclysmic variable stars 678:Astrophysical X-ray source 675: 657: 615: 543: 513:full width at half maximum 462: 236: 169:History of X-ray astronomy 166: 163:History of X-ray astronomy 155:is filled with a hot, but 5391: 5323: 5272: 5157: 5150: 5089: 5048: 4987: 4869: 4796: 4588: 4565:Large Binocular Telescope 4530:Extremely Large Telescope 4523:Extremely large telescope 4496: 4379: 4319: 4240: 4202: 4163: 4156: 4090: 3952:10.1007/s11214-006-9020-2 3592:10.1017/S1323358000013953 2839:The Astronomer's Telegram 2811:The Astronomer's Telegram 2710:The Astrophysical Journal 2316:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.995 2225:10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.439 2084:10.1007/s00159-004-0023-2 1886:satellite was monitoring 1751:that is a radio emitting 1747:is a smaller cousin of a 1467:Chandra X-ray Observatory 1459:Chandra X-ray Observatory 1377:reminiscent of hot stars, 1080:Chandra X-Ray Observatory 710:, through black holes in 654:X-ray astronomy detectors 594:Naval Research Laboratory 375:electromagnetic radiation 261:Naval Research Laboratory 245:White Sands Missile Range 40:to ~8 nm, over which the 5071:Synchrotron light source 4537:Gran Telescopio Canarias 4045:Audio – Cain/Gay (2009) 1400:wind-fed magnetospheres, 1143:High-mass X-ray binaries 1000:theoretical astrophysics 732:super soft X-ray sources 434:Local Interstellar Cloud 349:that exists between the 38:electromagnetic spectrum 5456:Observational astronomy 5090:Interaction with matter 5049:Sources and instruments 4904:Extragalactic astronomy 4632:Astrology and astronomy 4342:Gravitational radiation 3831:10.1093/mnras/107.2.211 3486:2006A&A...457..335H 3283:1999ARA&A..37..363F 2999:2009A&A...493L...1Z 2687:1967ARA&A...5..325M 2525:10.1023/A:1004911511905 2217:Physical Review Letters 2076:2004A&ARv..12...71G 1937:Stellar X-ray astronomy 1593:coronal heating problem 1587:Coronal heating problem 1517:Stellar magnetic fields 1493:Amateur X-ray astronomy 1487:Amateur X-ray astronomy 1477:University of Minnesota 1388:unstable stellar winds, 1309:pre-main-sequence stars 1175:Stellar X-ray astronomy 938:gravitational slingshot 804:Celestial X-ray sources 608:, apogee: 120 km. 233:Sounding rocket flights 97:Mauna Kea Observatories 5222:Diffraction tomography 4551:Hubble Space Telescope 3743:10.1002/asna.200710803 3619:Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac 1873: 1822: 1740: 1604:from the photosphere. 1481:Hubble Space Telescope 1462: 1304: 1283:pre-main-sequence star 1083: 1021:Most of the topics in 967: 910: 862: 712:active galactic nuclei 703: 694: 631: 626:One of the mirrors of 555: 499: 416:surrounding them) and 369:, larger dust grains, 330: 296:Nobel Prize in Physics 179: 49: 5333:X-ray crystallography 5202:Soft x-ray microscopy 5170:Panoramic radiography 5010:Synchrotron radiation 4655:Astroparticle physics 4390:Australian Aboriginal 3932:Space Science Reviews 3544:on December 12, 2012. 3306:Astrophysical Journal 2912:Bull Astron Soc India 2763:Space Science Reviews 2627:Astrophysical Journal 2580:"SWIFT X-ray mirrors" 2546:Feffer, Paul (1997). 1942:Ultraviolet astronomy 1932:Solar X-ray astronomy 1865: 1796: 1730: 1647:coronal mass ejection 1641:Coronal mass ejection 1621:in the form of large 1619:magnetic reconnection 1571:Solar X-ray astronomy 1565:Solar X-ray astronomy 1452: 1331:Galactic-Plane fields 1324:rotational modulation 1290: 1277:Young, low-mass stars 1072: 1011:numerical simulations 977:theoretical astronomy 963: 896: 844: 760:synchrotron radiation 700: 685: 625: 553: 493: 316: 176: 35: 5446:Astronomical imaging 5102:Photoelectric effect 5035:Characteristic X-ray 4647:Astronomers Monument 4579:Very Large Telescope 4126:Astronomical symbols 3525:on January 18, 2000. 1987:on February 24, 2012 1711:Exotic X-ray sources 1320:Einstein Observatory 1235:Einstein observatory 993:astronomical objects 853:) stretching across 762:, or what is called 756:black-body radiation 426:stellar wind bubbles 355:intergalactic medium 288:gravitational fields 211:August 5, 1948 12:07 65:astronomical objects 5122:Photodisintegration 5097:Rayleigh scattering 5076:Free-electron laser 4861:Major subfields of 4720:List of astronomers 4133:Astronomical object 3944:2006SSRv..123..303G 3894:1981ApJ...246..331S 3859:1988ApJ...330..474P 3822:1947MNRAS.107..211A 3734:2007AN....328..726E 3678:2009ApJ...703..420M 3631:1998PASP..110.1259G 3584:1974PASA....2..290T 3432:2013ApJS..209...26F 3371:2001Natur.413..708P 3328:2001ApJ...550L.189K 3248:1983ApJ...269..182M 3213:1981ApJ...243L..89F 3170:2005ApJS..160..401P 3095:1975ApJ...202L..67M 3051:1975ApJ...196L..47C 2954:1994ApJ...431..402K 2924:1999BASI...27..549T 2874:2007AcAau..61.1019K 2775:1987SSRv...45..291P 2732:2002ApJ...565.1107P 2639:1963ApJ...137....3B 2517:1997SoPh..171..419F 2453:2000SPIE.4012..693H 2352:"Riccardo Giacconi" 2307:2003RvMP...75..995G 2289:Giacconi R (2003). 2126:1939NW.....27..214G 2114:Naturwissenschaften 2101:on August 11, 2011. 1912:Gamma-ray astronomy 1065:Astronomical models 606:San Clemente Island 600:rockoons for solar 519:, the Crab Nebula. 335:interstellar medium 149:intergalactic space 71:is absorbed by the 18:Cosmic x-ray source 5363:X-ray reflectivity 5142:X-ray fluorescence 5107:Compton scattering 5040:High-energy X-rays 4919:Physical cosmology 4909:Galactic astronomy 4706:Physical cosmology 3774:. pp. 73–88. 2868:(11–12): 1019–28. 2783:10.1007/BF00171997 2372:Spitzer L (1978). 2169:10.1007/BF01941268 2134:10.1007/BF01488890 1874: 1823: 1817:(ISAS, Japan) and 1741: 1666:coronal transients 1547:angular resolution 1463: 1305: 1297:newly formed stars 1100:astronomical units 1084: 968: 915:neutrino astronomy 911: 863: 716:supernova remnants 704: 695: 632: 589:on March 1, 1949. 580:James A. Van Allen 556: 500: 400:, typically a few 333:In astronomy, the 331: 221:was launched from 180: 93:optical telescopes 73:Earth's atmosphere 50: 42:Earth's atmosphere 5423: 5422: 5419: 5418: 5411:X-ray lithography 5343:Backscatter X-ray 5338:X-ray diffraction 5165:X-ray radiography 5137:X-ray diffraction 5030:Siegbahn notation 4947: 4946: 4939:Stellar astronomy 4929:Planetary science 4924:Planetary geology 4914:Orbital mechanics 4828: 4827: 4713:Quantum cosmology 4699:Planetary geology 4492: 4491: 4203:Celestial subject 4049:– X-Ray Astronomy 3802:Alfvén H (1947). 3781:978-0-87590-984-4 3759:Siscoe, George L. 3365:(6857): 708–711. 2862:Acta Astronautica 2568:on June 21, 2002. 2461:10.1117/12.391608 2383:978-0-471-29335-4 2200:on April 8, 2010. 2157:Cell Mol Life Sci 1723:Be X-ray binaries 1681:geomagnetic storm 1551:spectral radiance 1403:accretion shocks, 1394:magnetic coronae, 1369:Herbig Ae/Be star 1334:cluster members. 1113:evolve to become 1004:analytical models 965:X-Rays from Pluto 903:swing-by maneuver 630:made of 203 foils 572:solid fuel rocket 341:) is the gas and 292:Riccardo Giacconi 200:Robert H. Goddard 16:(Redirected from 5468: 5249:X-ray holography 5155: 5154: 5127:Radiation damage 4974: 4967: 4960: 4951: 4950: 4855: 4848: 4841: 4832: 4831: 4821: 4817: 4816: 4809: 4805: 4804: 4789: 4780: 4773: 4766: 4759: 4750: 4743: 4736: 4734:Medieval Islamic 4729: 4722: 4715: 4708: 4701: 4694: 4687: 4678: 4671: 4664: 4657: 4650: 4641: 4634: 4627: 4620: 4618:Astroinformatics 4613: 4606: 4599: 4597:Archaeoastronomy 4581: 4574: 4567: 4560: 4558:Keck Observatory 4553: 4546: 4539: 4532: 4525: 4518: 4511: 4485: 4476: 4469: 4462: 4455: 4453:Medieval Islamic 4448: 4441: 4434: 4427: 4420: 4413: 4406: 4399: 4392: 4372: 4365: 4358: 4351: 4344: 4337: 4330: 4312: 4303: 4296: 4289: 4282: 4280: 4272: 4270: 4258: 4251: 4231: 4224: 4217: 4195: 4188: 4181: 4174: 4161: 4160: 4149: 4142: 4135: 4128: 4121: 4112: 4105: 4098: 4077: 4070: 4063: 4054: 4053: 4003: 4002: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3978: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3927: 3916: 3915: 3913: 3911:2060/19800019786 3877: 3871: 3870: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3833: 3799: 3793: 3792: 3790: 3769: 3754: 3748: 3747: 3745: 3713: 3698: 3697: 3671: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3625:(753): 1259–76. 3610: 3604: 3603: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3540:. Archived from 3533: 3527: 3526: 3515: 3506: 3505: 3479: 3477:astro-ph/0606517 3458: 3452: 3451: 3425: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3379:10.1038/35099508 3354: 3348: 3347: 3321: 3319:astro-ph/0102468 3312:(2): L189–L192. 3301: 3295: 3294: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3163: 3161:astro-ph/0506526 3143: 3137: 3136: 3134: 3127: 3118: 3109: 3108: 3106: 3074: 3065: 3064: 3062: 3030: 3019: 3018: 2992: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2937: 2928: 2927: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2758: 2752: 2751: 2725: 2723:astro-ph/0107261 2705: 2699: 2698: 2670: 2653: 2652: 2650: 2618: 2612: 2611: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2590: 2584: 2583: 2576: 2570: 2569: 2564:. Archived from 2558: 2552: 2551: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2500: 2494: 2493: 2486: 2480: 2479: 2477: 2438: 2428: 2422: 2421: 2413: 2407: 2406: 2405:on May 11, 2008. 2401:. Archived from 2394: 2388: 2387: 2369: 2363: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2348: 2342: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2327: 2321: 2320: 2318: 2286: 2280: 2274: 2273: 2269: 2267: 2252: 2242: 2236: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2208: 2202: 2201: 2196:. Archived from 2190: 2181: 2180: 2152: 2146: 2145: 2109: 2103: 2102: 2100: 2094:. Archived from 2069: 2067:astro-ph/0406661 2051: 2045:Güdel M (2004). 2042: 1997: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1983:. Archived from 1977: 1971: 1970: 1963: 1789:X-ray dark stars 1761:X-ray transients 1453:Classified as a 1391:colliding winds, 1347:Coolest M dwarfs 1231:Proxima Centauri 989:X-ray generation 983:and theoretical 942:gamma-ray bursts 909:by 80.2 degrees. 873:, or simply the 816:celestial sphere 748:X-ray background 687:Andromeda Galaxy 480:Palestine, Texas 398:molecular clouds 81:sounding rockets 21: 5476: 5475: 5471: 5470: 5469: 5467: 5466: 5465: 5436:X-ray astronomy 5426: 5425: 5424: 5415: 5399:X-ray astronomy 5387: 5319: 5268: 5254:X-ray telescope 5146: 5117:Photoionization 5085: 5081:X-ray nanoprobe 5044: 5000:Absorption edge 4988:Characteristics 4983: 4978: 4948: 4943: 4934:Solar astronomy 4865: 4859: 4829: 4824: 4812: 4800: 4792: 4785: 4776: 4769: 4764:X-ray telescope 4762: 4755: 4746: 4739: 4732: 4725: 4718: 4711: 4704: 4697: 4690: 4683: 4674: 4667: 4660: 4653: 4644: 4637: 4630: 4623: 4616: 4609: 4602: 4595: 4584: 4577: 4570: 4563: 4556: 4549: 4542: 4535: 4528: 4521: 4514: 4507: 4499: 4488: 4481: 4472: 4465: 4458: 4451: 4444: 4437: 4430: 4423: 4416: 4409: 4402: 4395: 4388: 4375: 4370:Multi-messenger 4368: 4361: 4354: 4347: 4340: 4333: 4326: 4315: 4308: 4299: 4292: 4285: 4278: 4275: 4266: 4261: 4254: 4247: 4236: 4227: 4220: 4209: 4198: 4193:Space telescope 4191: 4184: 4177: 4170: 4152: 4145: 4138: 4131: 4124: 4117: 4108: 4101: 4094: 4086: 4081: 4027: 4019:(Public Domain) 4011: 4006: 3995: 3991: 3983: 3976: 3972: 3971: 3967: 3928: 3919: 3878: 3874: 3843: 3839: 3800: 3796: 3788: 3782: 3767: 3755: 3751: 3714: 3701: 3652: 3648: 3611: 3607: 3568: 3564: 3553: 3549: 3534: 3530: 3517: 3516: 3509: 3459: 3455: 3406: 3402: 3355: 3351: 3302: 3298: 3267: 3263: 3232: 3228: 3197: 3193: 3144: 3140: 3132: 3125: 3119: 3112: 3075: 3068: 3031: 3022: 2973: 2969: 2938: 2931: 2908: 2904: 2893: 2889: 2858: 2854: 2844: 2842: 2830: 2826: 2816: 2814: 2802: 2798: 2759: 2755: 2706: 2702: 2671: 2656: 2619: 2615: 2606: 2605: 2601: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2578: 2577: 2573: 2560: 2559: 2555: 2544: 2540: 2501: 2497: 2488: 2487: 2483: 2475: 2436: 2429: 2425: 2414: 2410: 2395: 2391: 2384: 2370: 2366: 2356: 2354: 2350: 2349: 2345: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2328: 2324: 2287: 2283: 2271: 2265: 2250: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2229: 2227: 2209: 2205: 2192: 2191: 2184: 2153: 2149: 2110: 2106: 2098: 2060:(2–3): 71–237. 2049: 2043: 2000: 1990: 1988: 1979: 1978: 1974: 1965: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1947:X-ray telescope 1922:IRAS 13224-3809 1897: 1880: 1860: 1847: 1835: 1829: 1791: 1739: 1725: 1719: 1713: 1643: 1602:heat conduction 1589: 1573: 1567: 1538: 1532: 1519: 1511: 1495: 1489: 1447: 1441: 1424: 1416: 1371: 1365: 1358: 1349: 1340: 1285: 1279: 1196: 1194:Stellar coronae 1189: 1177: 1163: 1140: 1107:"Dividing Line" 1077: 1067: 1055: 1049: 1043: 973: 966: 891: 875:Eridanus Bubble 812: 806: 787: 784: 708:galaxy clusters 680: 674: 662: 656: 620: 618:X-ray telescope 614: 548: 542: 530:McMurdo Station 525: 505:X-ray telescope 488: 467: 461: 311: 241: 239:Sounding rocket 235: 186:and associates 171: 165: 157:very dilute gas 153:galaxy clusters 89:space telescope 53:X-ray astronomy 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5474: 5464: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5421: 5420: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5413: 5408: 5407: 5406: 5395: 5393: 5389: 5388: 5386: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5329: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5318: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5276: 5274: 5270: 5269: 5267: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5240: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5198: 5197: 5192: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5161: 5159: 5152: 5148: 5147: 5145: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5093: 5091: 5087: 5086: 5084: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5052: 5050: 5046: 5045: 5043: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4991: 4989: 4985: 4984: 4977: 4976: 4969: 4962: 4954: 4945: 4944: 4942: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4894:Cosmochemistry 4891: 4886: 4881: 4879:Astrochemistry 4876: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4858: 4857: 4850: 4843: 4835: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4822: 4810: 4797: 4794: 4793: 4791: 4790: 4783: 4782: 4781: 4774: 4767: 4753: 4752: 4751: 4744: 4737: 4730: 4716: 4709: 4702: 4695: 4688: 4681: 4680: 4679: 4665: 4658: 4651: 4642: 4635: 4628: 4621: 4614: 4611:Astrochemistry 4607: 4600: 4592: 4590: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4582: 4575: 4568: 4561: 4554: 4547: 4544:Hale Telescope 4540: 4533: 4526: 4519: 4512: 4504: 4502: 4494: 4493: 4490: 4489: 4487: 4486: 4479: 4478: 4477: 4463: 4456: 4449: 4442: 4435: 4428: 4421: 4414: 4407: 4400: 4393: 4385: 4383: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4373: 4366: 4359: 4352: 4345: 4338: 4331: 4323: 4321: 4317: 4316: 4314: 4313: 4306: 4305: 4304: 4290: 4283: 4277:Visible-light 4273: 4259: 4252: 4244: 4242: 4238: 4237: 4235: 4234: 4233: 4232: 4218: 4206: 4204: 4200: 4199: 4197: 4196: 4189: 4182: 4175: 4167: 4165: 4158: 4154: 4153: 4151: 4150: 4143: 4136: 4129: 4122: 4115: 4114: 4113: 4099: 4091: 4088: 4087: 4080: 4079: 4072: 4065: 4057: 4051: 4050: 4047:Astronomy Cast 4043: 4038: 4033: 4026: 4025:External links 4023: 4022: 4021: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4004: 3989: 3965: 3917: 3902:10.1086/158926 3872: 3867:10.1086/166485 3837: 3794: 3780: 3749: 3699: 3646: 3640:10.1086/316251 3605: 3562: 3547: 3528: 3507: 3453: 3400: 3349: 3336:10.1086/319651 3296: 3261: 3256:10.1086/161029 3226: 3221:10.1086/183449 3191: 3178:10.1086/432891 3154:(2): 401–422. 3138: 3121:Telleschi AS. 3110: 3104:10.1086/181983 3066: 3060:10.1086/181741 3020: 2967: 2962:10.1086/174494 2929: 2902: 2887: 2852: 2824: 2796: 2753: 2740:10.1086/324686 2700: 2654: 2648:10.1086/147479 2613: 2608:"X-ray optics" 2599: 2585: 2571: 2553: 2538: 2511:(2): 419–445. 2495: 2481: 2423: 2408: 2389: 2382: 2364: 2343: 2331:"Scorpius X-1" 2322: 2281: 2253:. NASA. 1966. 2237: 2203: 2182: 2147: 2104: 1998: 1972: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1904: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1876:Main article: 1859: 1856: 1846: 1843: 1825:Main article: 1790: 1787: 1737:ULX ray source 1715:Main article: 1712: 1709: 1670:solar eclipses 1642: 1639: 1588: 1585: 1569:Main article: 1566: 1563: 1534:Main article: 1531: 1528: 1518: 1515: 1510: 1507: 1491:Main article: 1488: 1485: 1443:Main article: 1440: 1437: 1422: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1410: 1407: 1404: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1382: 1381: 1378: 1367:Main article: 1364: 1361: 1356: 1348: 1345: 1339: 1338:Unstable winds 1336: 1281:Main article: 1278: 1275: 1271: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1250: 1249: 1246: 1242: 1195: 1192: 1187: 1176: 1173: 1161: 1139: 1136: 1135: 1134: 1131: 1128: 1125: 1122: 1066: 1063: 1059:magnetic field 1045:Main article: 1042: 1039: 1027:astrochemistry 985:astrochemistry 972: 969: 964: 890: 887: 808:Main article: 805: 802: 785: 782: 752:bremsstrahlung 736:X-ray binaries 676:Main article: 673: 670: 658:Main article: 655: 652: 651: 650: 647: 616:Main article: 613: 610: 544:Main article: 541: 538: 524: 521: 487: 484: 463:Main article: 460: 457: 394:Stars are born 310: 307: 237:Main article: 234: 231: 219:Project Hermes 167:Main article: 164: 161: 103:X-ray emission 95:, such as the 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5473: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5441:Space plasmas 5439: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5412: 5409: 5405: 5402: 5401: 5400: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5390: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5322: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5271: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5224: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5187: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5175:Tomosynthesis 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5156: 5153: 5149: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5053: 5051: 5047: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5005:Moseley's law 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4992: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4981:X-ray science 4975: 4970: 4968: 4963: 4961: 4956: 4955: 4952: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4871: 4868: 4864: 4856: 4851: 4849: 4844: 4842: 4837: 4836: 4833: 4820: 4811: 4808: 4799: 4798: 4795: 4788: 4784: 4779: 4775: 4772: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4742: 4738: 4735: 4731: 4728: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4717: 4714: 4710: 4707: 4703: 4700: 4696: 4693: 4689: 4686: 4682: 4677: 4673: 4672: 4670: 4669:Constellation 4666: 4663: 4659: 4656: 4652: 4649: 4648: 4643: 4640: 4636: 4633: 4629: 4626: 4622: 4619: 4615: 4612: 4608: 4605: 4601: 4598: 4594: 4593: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4576: 4573: 4569: 4566: 4562: 4559: 4555: 4552: 4548: 4545: 4541: 4538: 4534: 4531: 4527: 4524: 4520: 4517: 4513: 4510: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4495: 4484: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4470: 4468: 4464: 4461: 4457: 4454: 4450: 4447: 4443: 4440: 4436: 4433: 4429: 4426: 4422: 4419: 4415: 4412: 4408: 4405: 4401: 4398: 4394: 4391: 4387: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4378: 4371: 4367: 4364: 4360: 4357: 4353: 4350: 4346: 4343: 4339: 4336: 4332: 4329: 4325: 4324: 4322: 4320:Other methods 4318: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4291: 4288: 4284: 4281: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4257: 4256:Submillimetre 4253: 4250: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4239: 4230: 4226: 4225: 4223: 4219: 4216: 4215:Extragalactic 4212: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4201: 4194: 4190: 4187: 4183: 4180: 4179:Observational 4176: 4173: 4169: 4168: 4166: 4162: 4159: 4155: 4148: 4144: 4141: 4137: 4134: 4130: 4127: 4123: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4107: 4106: 4104: 4100: 4097: 4093: 4092: 4089: 4085: 4078: 4073: 4071: 4066: 4064: 4059: 4058: 4055: 4048: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4028: 4020: 4018: 4013: 4012: 4000: 3993: 3982: 3975: 3969: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3876: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3841: 3832: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3810: 3805: 3798: 3787: 3783: 3777: 3773: 3766: 3765: 3760: 3753: 3744: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3650: 3641: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3609: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3566: 3558: 3551: 3543: 3539: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3514: 3512: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3457: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3404: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3300: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3265: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3131: 3124: 3117: 3115: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3073: 3071: 3061: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2971: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2934: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2906: 2898: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2856: 2841: 2840: 2835: 2828: 2813: 2812: 2807: 2800: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2757: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2724: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2704: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2649: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2617: 2609: 2603: 2595: 2589: 2581: 2575: 2567: 2563: 2557: 2549: 2542: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2505:Solar Physics 2499: 2491: 2485: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2435: 2427: 2419: 2412: 2404: 2400: 2393: 2385: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2353: 2347: 2332: 2326: 2317: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2285: 2278: 2277:public domain 2264: 2260: 2256: 2249: 2248: 2241: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2207: 2199: 2195: 2189: 2187: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2151: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2108: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2048: 2041: 2039: 2037: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2009: 2007: 2005: 2003: 1986: 1982: 1976: 1968: 1962: 1958: 1948: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1900: 1899: 1892: 1889: 1885: 1879: 1871: 1870: 1864: 1855: 1851: 1842: 1840: 1834: 1828: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1738: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1718: 1708: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1638: 1635: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1605: 1603: 1598: 1594: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1572: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1537: 1527: 1525: 1514: 1506: 1502: 1500: 1494: 1484: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1460: 1456: 1455:Peculiar star 1451: 1446: 1436: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1408: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1397:disk coronae, 1396: 1393: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1385: 1379: 1376: 1375: 1374: 1370: 1360: 1355: 1344: 1335: 1332: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1316: 1314: 1313:main-sequence 1310: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1274: 1268: 1265: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1257: 1255: 1247: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1236: 1232: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1200:coronal cloud 1191: 1186: 1182: 1172: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1147:neutron stars 1144: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1092: 1090: 1089:coronal cloud 1081: 1076: 1071: 1062: 1060: 1054: 1048: 1047:Dynamo theory 1038: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1008:computational 1005: 1001: 996: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 962: 958: 955: 950: 947: 943: 939: 935: 934: 929: 926: 924: 920: 916: 908: 904: 900: 895: 886: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 860: 856: 852: 848: 843: 839: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 811: 801: 799: 795: 790: 788: 778: 774: 772: 767: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 722:containing a 721: 718:, stars, and 717: 713: 709: 699: 692: 688: 684: 679: 669: 665: 661: 648: 645: 644: 643: 640: 636: 629: 624: 619: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 590: 588: 587: 581: 576: 573: 569: 565: 562:, a blend of 561: 552: 547: 537: 535: 531: 520: 518: 514: 510: 506: 497: 492: 483: 481: 477: 473: 466: 456: 454: 450: 449:Black Brant 9 446: 441: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 410:Stellar winds 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 386:coronal cloud 382: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 328: 324: 320: 315: 306: 304: 303:field of view 299: 297: 294:received the 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 276:neutron stars 273: 272:compact stars 269: 264: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 240: 230: 226: 224: 220: 216: 212: 207: 203: 201: 197: 193: 192:Merle A. Tuve 189: 188:Gregory Breit 185: 175: 170: 160: 158: 154: 150: 145: 143: 139: 135: 132: 131:constellation 128: 124: 119: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 47: 43: 39: 34: 30: 19: 5398: 5273:Spectroscopy 5217:Ptychography 5151:Applications 5112:Auger effect 5015:Water window 4889:Astrophysics 4874:Astrobiology 4645: 4625:Astrophysics 4604:Astrobiology 4293: 4268:Far-infrared 4222:Local system 4157:Astronomy by 4147:... in space 4014: 3992: 3968: 3938:(1–3): 303. 3935: 3931: 3885: 3881: 3875: 3850: 3846: 3840: 3813: 3807: 3797: 3763: 3752: 3725: 3722:Astron Nachr 3721: 3659: 3655: 3649: 3622: 3618: 3608: 3575: 3571: 3565: 3555:Blaylock E. 3550: 3542:the original 3531: 3523:the original 3467: 3463: 3456: 3413: 3409: 3403: 3362: 3358: 3352: 3309: 3305: 3299: 3274: 3270: 3264: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3204: 3200: 3194: 3151: 3147: 3141: 3086: 3082: 3042: 3038: 2980: 2976: 2970: 2945: 2941: 2915: 2911: 2905: 2890: 2865: 2861: 2855: 2843:. Retrieved 2837: 2827: 2815:. Retrieved 2809: 2799: 2769:(3–4): 291. 2766: 2762: 2756: 2713: 2709: 2703: 2678: 2674: 2630: 2626: 2616: 2602: 2588: 2574: 2566:the original 2556: 2547: 2541: 2508: 2504: 2498: 2484: 2444: 2440: 2426: 2411: 2403:the original 2392: 2373: 2367: 2355:. Retrieved 2346: 2334:. Retrieved 2325: 2298: 2295:Rev Mod Phys 2294: 2284: 2246: 2240: 2228:. Retrieved 2216: 2206: 2198:the original 2160: 2156: 2150: 2117: 2113: 2107: 2096:the original 2057: 2053: 1989:. Retrieved 1985:the original 1975: 1966: 1961: 1881: 1868: 1852: 1848: 1836: 1776: 1753:X-ray binary 1742: 1688: 1674: 1665: 1659: 1655: 1644: 1634:Alfvén waves 1631: 1623:solar flares 1606: 1590: 1574: 1559: 1555: 1539: 1520: 1512: 1503: 1496: 1464: 1427: 1419: 1417: 1383: 1372: 1353: 1350: 1341: 1328: 1317: 1306: 1301:Orion Nebula 1272: 1258: 1251: 1228: 1197: 1184: 1178: 1166: 1158: 1141: 1104: 1093: 1085: 1056: 1053:Solar dynamo 1023:astrophysics 1020: 1016: 997: 981:astrophysics 974: 953: 951: 945: 931: 930: 927: 912: 874: 870: 864: 813: 791: 777:Hercules X-1 775: 768: 740:Solar System 720:binary stars 705: 666: 663: 641: 637: 633: 591: 586:Norton Sound 585: 577: 567: 563: 557: 526: 501: 468: 442: 438:Local Bubble 430:superbubbles 383: 378: 351:star systems 338: 332: 300: 265: 242: 227: 208: 204: 181: 146: 127:Scorpius X-1 120: 111:thermosphere 101: 52: 51: 29: 5066:Synchrotron 4692:Planetarium 4349:High-energy 4335:Cosmic rays 4287:Ultraviolet 3882:Astrophys J 3847:Astrophys J 3656:Astrophys J 3277:: 363–408. 3242:: 182–201. 3207:: L89–L93. 3083:Astrophys J 3039:Astrophys J 2942:Astrophys J 2716:(2): 1107. 2230:February 7, 2120:(13): 214. 1991:October 29, 1907:Crab (unit) 1888:Comet Lulin 1878:Comet Lulin 1858:Comet Lulin 1799:solar cycle 1765:supergiants 1745:microquasar 1735:- possible 1685:Kew Gardens 1597:photosphere 1472:Eta Carinae 1445:Eta Carinae 1439:Eta Carinae 1151:black holes 1111:giant stars 1098:(ly)s, not 1096:light-years 883:ultraviolet 724:white dwarf 691:ultraviolet 602:ultraviolet 496:Crab Nebula 476:Crab Nebula 447:launched a 420:created by 418:shock waves 414:HII regions 371:cosmic rays 343:cosmic dust 280:black holes 217:as part of 142:wavelengths 69:X-radiation 5430:Categories 5325:Scattering 5190:Helical CT 5056:X-ray tube 4884:Astrometry 4685:Photometry 4662:Binoculars 4639:Astrometry 4500:telescopes 4397:Babylonian 4241:EM methods 4119:Astronomer 3816:(2): 211. 3728:(8): 726. 3662:(1): 420. 3578:(5): 290. 3470:(1): 335. 2681:(1): 325. 2416:Drake SA. 2397:Wright B. 2357:January 4, 2336:January 4, 2301:(3): 995. 2163:(7): 710. 1954:References 1839:Betelgeuse 1833:Supergiant 1831:See also: 1783:gamma rays 1773:Messier 87 1757:LSI+61°303 1721:See also: 1697:ionosphere 1627:nanoflares 1543:astrometry 1254:UX Arietis 1212:Copernicus 1115:red giants 1051:See also: 1031:astrometry 923:Explorer 3 919:Explorer 1 534:Antarctica 422:supernovae 274:, such as 253:V-2 rocket 249:New Mexico 215:V-2 rocket 99:, cannot. 85:satellites 4899:Cosmology 4863:astronomy 4757:Telescope 4363:Spherical 4310:Gamma-ray 4279:(optical) 4084:Astronomy 3997:Reddy F. 3960:119043472 3694:119293010 3669:0907.3767 3600:116484669 3423:1309.4483 3416:(2): 26. 2990:0811.2941 2983:(1): L1. 2895:Smith W. 2791:120443194 2533:116604571 2469:122091056 2441:Proc SPIE 2376:. Wiley. 2259:988751617 2092:119509015 1705:Heaviside 1035:astronomy 584:USS 390:turbulent 377:, is the 367:molecules 298:in 2002. 257:nose cone 57:astronomy 5061:Betatron 4807:Category 4516:Category 4411:Egyptian 4328:Neutrino 4263:Infrared 4211:Galactic 4186:Sidewalk 4140:Glossary 4110:Timeline 3981:Archived 3786:Archived 3761:(eds.). 3502:14319327 3448:56189137 3395:13878953 3387:11607024 3344:12306305 3186:18155082 3130:Archived 3015:17863072 2845:July 24, 2817:July 25, 2748:16381236 2490:"HIREGS" 2473:Archived 2263:Archived 2177:23522259 2142:27237383 1895:See also 1811:cycle 23 1807:cycle 22 1778:magnetar 1701:Kennelly 1693:Roentgen 1689:crotchet 1679:and the 1615:magnetic 1414:K giants 1229:In 1977 1149:(NS) or 907:ecliptic 855:Eridanus 832:universe 824:galaxies 786:☉ 780:~2 738:). Some 639:rocket. 570:, was a 540:Rockoons 509:tungsten 472:spectrum 459:Balloons 134:Scorpius 77:balloons 5404:History 5158:Imaging 4819:Commons 4771:history 4741:Russian 4589:Related 4498:Optical 4483:Tibetan 4467:Serbian 4460:Persian 4404:Chinese 4381:Culture 4301:History 4172:Amateur 4103:History 4096:Outline 4009:Sources 3940:Bibcode 3890:Bibcode 3888:: 331. 3855:Bibcode 3853:: 474. 3818:Bibcode 3730:Bibcode 3674:Bibcode 3627:Bibcode 3580:Bibcode 3482:Bibcode 3428:Bibcode 3367:Bibcode 3324:Bibcode 3279:Bibcode 3244:Bibcode 3209:Bibcode 3166:Bibcode 3091:Bibcode 3089:: L67. 3047:Bibcode 3045:: L47. 2995:Bibcode 2950:Bibcode 2948:: 402. 2920:Bibcode 2918:: 549. 2870:Bibcode 2771:Bibcode 2728:Bibcode 2683:Bibcode 2635:Bibcode 2513:Bibcode 2449:Bibcode 2447:: 693. 2303:Bibcode 2122:Bibcode 2072:Bibcode 1882:NASA's 1769:Chandra 1651:protons 1299:in the 1293:Cluster 1181:Capella 1155:pulsars 1041:Dynamos 1018:model. 954:Ulysses 946:Ulysses 933:Ulysses 899:Jupiter 828:pulsars 568:balloon 560:rockoon 546:Rockoon 517:Tau X-1 402:parsecs 284:gravity 268:Aerobee 251:with a 194:of the 140:in all 5392:Others 5353:GISAXS 5025:L-edge 5020:K-edge 4787:Zodiac 4727:French 4432:Indian 4425:Hebrew 4164:Manner 3958: 3778: 3692: 3598: 3500: 3446: 3393: 3385: 3359:Nature 3342: 3184: 3013: 2789: 2746: 2531: 2467: 2380: 2257: 2175: 2140: 2090: 1803:Yohkoh 1749:quasar 1733:SS 433 1595:. The 1581:corona 1433:Gemini 1429:Pollux 1224:HEAO 1 1220:Sirius 1208:Skylab 869:, the 598:Deacon 564:rocket 347:matter 107:kelvin 83:, and 46:opaque 5383:EDXRD 5305:XANES 5300:EXAFS 5290:ARPES 5237:3DXRD 4995:X-ray 4778:lists 4748:Women 4439:Inuit 4418:Greek 4356:Radar 4294:X-ray 4249:Radio 4229:Solar 3984:(PDF) 3977:(PDF) 3956:S2CID 3789:(PDF) 3768:(PDF) 3690:S2CID 3664:arXiv 3596:S2CID 3498:S2CID 3472:arXiv 3444:S2CID 3418:arXiv 3391:S2CID 3340:S2CID 3314:arXiv 3182:S2CID 3156:arXiv 3133:(PDF) 3126:(PDF) 3011:S2CID 2985:arXiv 2787:S2CID 2744:S2CID 2718:arXiv 2633:: 3. 2529:S2CID 2476:(PDF) 2465:S2CID 2437:(PDF) 2266:(PDF) 2251:(PDF) 2173:S2CID 2138:S2CID 2099:(PDF) 2088:S2CID 2062:arXiv 2050:(PDF) 1869:Swift 1821:(US). 1662:OSO 7 998:Like 859:Orion 847:ROSAT 845:This 836:Earth 628:XRISM 406:stars 363:atoms 178:NRL). 61:X-ray 5368:RIXS 5358:WAXS 5348:SAXS 5259:DFXM 5227:XDCT 5212:STXM 5207:XPCI 5195:XACT 4509:List 4474:folk 4446:Maya 3776:ISBN 3383:PMID 2847:2020 2819:2020 2445:4012 2378:ISBN 2359:2019 2338:2019 2255:OCLC 2232:2021 1993:2009 1819:NASA 1775:. A 1703:and 1699:(by 1610:wave 1549:and 1210:and 1105:The 952:The 921:and 879:IRAS 857:and 814:The 744:Moon 730:and 566:and 558:The 494:The 445:NASA 428:and 359:ions 337:(or 323:NASA 321:and 190:and 5373:XRS 5315:XFH 5310:EDS 5295:AES 5285:XPS 5280:XAS 5264:DXA 5232:DCT 5180:CDI 4676:IAU 3948:doi 3936:123 3906:hdl 3898:doi 3886:246 3863:doi 3851:330 3826:doi 3814:107 3738:doi 3726:328 3682:doi 3660:703 3635:doi 3623:110 3588:doi 3490:doi 3468:457 3436:doi 3414:209 3375:doi 3363:413 3332:doi 3310:550 3287:doi 3252:doi 3240:269 3217:doi 3205:243 3174:doi 3152:160 3099:doi 3087:202 3055:doi 3043:196 3003:doi 2981:493 2958:doi 2946:431 2878:doi 2779:doi 2736:doi 2714:565 2691:doi 2643:doi 2631:137 2521:doi 2509:171 2457:doi 2311:doi 2221:doi 2165:doi 2130:doi 2080:doi 1707:). 1577:Sun 1295:of 1245:and 1216:ANS 1109:as 987:of 800:". 769:An 339:ISM 325:'s 278:or 266:An 247:in 151:in 138:Sun 115:Sun 67:. 44:is 5432:: 5378:XS 5185:CT 4213:/ 3979:. 3954:. 3946:. 3934:. 3920:^ 3904:. 3896:. 3884:. 3861:. 3849:. 3824:. 3812:. 3806:. 3784:. 3770:. 3736:. 3724:. 3720:. 3702:^ 3688:. 3680:. 3672:. 3658:. 3633:. 3621:. 3617:. 3594:. 3586:. 3574:. 3510:^ 3496:. 3488:. 3480:. 3466:. 3442:. 3434:. 3426:. 3412:. 3389:. 3381:. 3373:. 3361:. 3338:. 3330:. 3322:. 3308:. 3285:. 3275:37 3273:. 3250:. 3238:. 3215:. 3203:. 3180:. 3172:. 3164:. 3150:. 3128:. 3113:^ 3097:. 3085:. 3081:. 3069:^ 3053:. 3041:. 3037:. 3023:^ 3009:. 3001:. 2993:. 2979:. 2956:. 2944:. 2932:^ 2916:27 2914:. 2876:. 2866:61 2864:. 2836:. 2808:. 2785:. 2777:. 2767:45 2765:. 2742:. 2734:. 2726:. 2712:. 2689:. 2677:. 2657:^ 2641:. 2629:. 2625:. 2527:. 2519:. 2507:. 2471:. 2463:. 2455:. 2439:. 2309:. 2299:75 2297:. 2293:. 2261:. 2215:. 2185:^ 2171:. 2161:51 2159:. 2136:. 2128:. 2118:27 2116:. 2086:. 2078:. 2070:. 2058:12 2056:. 2052:. 2001:^ 1797:A 1785:. 1743:A 1645:A 1629:. 1553:. 1082:). 1029:, 1025:, 995:. 758:, 754:, 532:, 455:. 440:. 381:. 365:, 361:, 144:. 79:, 4973:e 4966:t 4959:v 4854:e 4847:t 4840:v 4271:) 4265:( 4076:e 4069:t 4062:v 4001:. 3962:. 3950:: 3942:: 3914:. 3908:: 3900:: 3892:: 3869:. 3865:: 3857:: 3834:. 3828:: 3820:: 3746:. 3740:: 3732:: 3696:. 3684:: 3676:: 3666:: 3643:. 3637:: 3629:: 3602:. 3590:: 3582:: 3576:2 3559:. 3504:. 3492:: 3484:: 3474:: 3450:. 3438:: 3430:: 3420:: 3397:. 3377:: 3369:: 3346:. 3334:: 3326:: 3316:: 3293:. 3289:: 3281:: 3258:. 3254:: 3246:: 3223:. 3219:: 3211:: 3188:. 3176:: 3168:: 3158:: 3107:. 3101:: 3093:: 3063:. 3057:: 3049:: 3017:. 3005:: 2997:: 2987:: 2964:. 2960:: 2952:: 2926:. 2922:: 2899:. 2884:. 2880:: 2872:: 2849:. 2821:. 2793:. 2781:: 2773:: 2750:. 2738:: 2730:: 2720:: 2697:. 2693:: 2685:: 2679:5 2651:. 2645:: 2637:: 2610:. 2596:. 2582:. 2535:. 2523:: 2515:: 2492:. 2459:: 2451:: 2420:. 2386:. 2361:. 2340:. 2319:. 2313:: 2305:: 2279:. 2234:. 2223:: 2179:. 2167:: 2144:. 2132:: 2124:: 2082:: 2074:: 2064:: 1995:. 1423:X 1420:L 1357:X 1354:L 1303:. 1188:x 1185:L 1162:x 1159:L 1078:( 861:. 783:M 726:( 48:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index