591:
447:
43:
459:
356:
558:
boundaries between research, extension, farmers, farmers' groups, NGOs and private enterprises. Extension should play the role of facilitating the access to and transfer of knowledge among the different entities involved in the innovation system and create competent institutional modes to improve the overall performance of the innovation system. Inability to play this important role would further marginalize extension efforts.
518:
agricultural extension now receives considerably less support from donor agencies. Among academics working in this field, some have recently argued that agricultural extension needs to be reinvented as a professional practice. Other authors have abandoned the idea of extension as a distinct concept and prefer to think in terms of "knowledge systems" in which farmers are seen as experts rather than adopters.
611:
Human resource development (educational + paternalistic): This paradigm dominated the earliest days of extension in Europe and North
America, when universities gave training to rural people who were too poor to attend full-time courses. It continues today in the outreach activities of colleges around
493:
Diverse top-down extension: After independence, commodity-based extension services emerged from the remnants of the colonial system, with production targets established as part of five-year development plans. In addition, various schemes were initiated to meet the needs of small farmers, with support
389:
occurred. The
British Government arranged for "practical instructors" to travel to rural areas and teach small farmers how to cultivate alternative crops. This scheme attracted the attention of government officials in Germany, who organized their own system of traveling instructors. By the end of the
372:
It is not known where or when the first extension activities took place. It is known, however, that
Chinese officials were creating agricultural policies, documenting practical knowledge, and disseminating advice to farmers at least 2,000 years ago. For example, in approximately 800 BC, the minister
577:
has emerged to contribute to in-depth examinations of the communication processes among various actors within and external to the agricultural system. This field refers to the participatory extension model as a form of public relations-rooted two-way symmetric communication based on mutual respect,
603:
Technology transfer (persuasive + paternalistic): This paradigm was prevalent in colonial times and reappeared in the 1970s and 1980s when the "Training and Visit" system was established across Asia. Technology transfer involves a top-down approach that delivers specific recommendations to farmers
401:
in 1867 to describe teaching activities that extended the work of the institution beyond the campus. Most of these early activities were not, however, related to agriculture. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century, when colleges in the United States started conducting demonstrations at
598:
Any particular extension system can be described in terms of both how communication takes place and why it takes place. It is not the case that paternalistic systems are always persuasive, nor is it the case that participatory projects are necessarily educational. Instead, there are four possible
187:
and later in the USA via the cooperative extension system authorized by the Smith-Lever Act in 1914. The term was later adopted in the United States of
America, while in Britain it was replaced with "advisory service" in the 20th century. A number of other terms are used in different parts of the
581:
Agricultural communication can take three modesâface-to-face training, training "products" such as manuals and videos, or information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as radio and short message system (SMS). The most effective systems facilitate two-way communication and often combine
557:
Several of the institutional innovations that have come up in response to the weaknesses in public research and extension system have given enough indications of the emergence of an agricultural innovation system in India. This has resulted in the blurring of the clearly demarcated institutional
640:
has argued that the terms âextensionâ and âparticipationâ are contradictory. There are philosophical reasons behind these disagreements. From a practical point of view, however, communication processes that conform to each of these four paradigms are currently being organized under the name of
517:
The fourth generation is well established in some countries, while it has only just begun in other places. While it seems likely that participatory approaches will continue to spread in the next few years, it is impossible to predict the long-term future of extension. Compared to 20 years ago,
301:
agents, or extension educators. Often confused with
Extension agents, Extension specialists are subject matter experts usually employed as scientists and university professors in various departments in the land-grant university system. Subjects range from agriculture, life sciences, economics,
607:
Advisory work (persuasive + participatory): This paradigm can be seen today where government organizations or private consulting companies respond to farmers' inquiries with technical prescriptions. It also takes the form of projects managed by donor agencies and NGOs that use participatory
635:
There is some disagreement about whether or not the concept and name of 'extension' really encompasses all four paradigms. Some experts believe that the term should be restricted to persuasive approaches, while others believe it should only be used for educational activities.
508:
Diverse bottom-up extension: When World Bank funding came to an end, the T&V system collapsed in many countries, leaving behind a patchwork of programs and projects funded from various other sources. The decline of central planning, combined with a growing concern for
302:
engineering, food safety, pest management, veterinary medicine, and various other allied disciplines. These subject matter specialists work with agents (usually in a statewide or regional team environment) to support programs within the cooperative extension system.
323:
1973: Extension is a service or system which assists farm people, through educational procedures, in improving farming methods and techniques, increasing production efficiency and income, bettering their standard of living and lifting social and educational
339:
1999: The essence of agricultural extension is to facilitate interplay and nurture synergies within a total information system involving agricultural research, agricultural education and a vast complex of information-providing
384:
The birth of the modern extension service has been attributed to events that took place in
Ireland in the middle of the 19th century. Between 1845â51 the Irish potato crop was destroyed by fungal diseases and a
343:
2004: Extension is a series of embedded communicative interventions that are meant, among other goals, to develop and/or induce innovations which help to resolve (usually multi-actor) problematic situations.
314:
1949: The central task of extension is to help rural families help themselves by applying science, whether physical or social, to the daily routines of farming, homemaking, and family and community living.
623:
and farmer-to-farmer exchanges. Knowledge is gained through interactive processes and the participants are encouraged to make their own decisions. The best known examples in Asia are projects that use
797:
State
Extension Leaders Network (SELN) 2006 'Enabling Change in Rural and Regional Australia: The role of extension in achieving sustainable and productive futures', online resource: www.seln.org.au.
470:
The development of extension services in modern Asia has differed from country to country. Despite the variations, it is possible to identify a general sequence of four periods or "generations":
136:
Extension practitioners can be found throughout the world, usually working for government agencies. They are represented by several professional organizations, networks and extension journals.
320:
1966: Extension personnel have the task of bringing scientific knowledge to farm families in the farms and homes. The object of the task is to improve the efficiency of agriculture.
333:
1988: Extension is a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to induce change in voluntary behaviors with a presumed public or collective utility.
650:
641:
extension in one part of the world or another. Pragmatically, if not ideologically, all of these activities are considered to be represented in agricultural extension.
346:
2006: Extension is the process of enabling change in individuals, communities and industries involved in the primary industry sector and in natural resource management.
330:
1982: Agricultural
Extension: Assistance to farmers to help them identify and analyze their production problems and become aware of the opportunities for improvement.
932:, translated by Louise Bigwood & Margaret Marshall and re-printed in 'Education: The Practice of Freedom' (1976), Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative
402:
agricultural shows and giving lectures to farmerâs clubs, that the term "extension service" was applied to the type of work that we now recognize by that name.
501:. Existing organizations were merged into a single national service. Regular messages were delivered to groups of farmers, promoting the adoption of "
612:
the world. Top-down teaching methods are employed, but students are expected to make their own decisions about how to use the knowledge they acquire.
425:
to be operated by those universities in order to inform people about current developments in agriculture, home economics, and related subjects.
788:
Saville, A. H. (1965) Extension in Rural
Communities: A Manual for Agricultural and Home Extension technician Workers. Oxford University Press.
381:
and drainage to farmers. The minister also leased equipment to farmers, built grain stores and supplied free food during times of famine.
883:
327:
1974: Extension involves the conscious use of communication of information to help people form sound opinions and make good decisions.
436:
using the
Extension model. The first Marine Extension agent was Bob Jacobsen, and was known as "an agricultural agent in hip-boots".
590:
570:
systems. Two particular issues help to define the type of extension: how communication takes place, and why it takes place.
980:
680:
628:
594:
Announcement by a county agricultural agent of a farmers conference held in Philadelphia, Mississippi on January 24, 1929.
277:
In the US, an extension agent is a university employee who develops and delivers educational programs to assist people in
975:
429:
497:
Unified top-down extension: During the 1970s and 1980s, the Training and Visit system (T&V) was introduced by the
310:
The examples given below are taken from a number of books on extension published over a period of more than 50 years:
899:
730:
722:
152:
86:
64:
57:
690:
410:
17:
113:. The field of 'extension' now encompasses a wider range of communication and learning activities organized for
285:, leadership, family issues, agriculture and environment. Another program area provided by extension agents is
945:
290:
904:
766:
317:
1965: Agricultural extension has been described as a system of out-of-school education for rural people.
574:
779:
Brunner, E. and Hsin Pao Yang, E. (1949) Rural America and the Extension Service, Columbia University
670:
144:
752:
675:
655:
179:
with Lord Clarendon's itinerant instructors during the great famine. It expanded in Germany in the
51:
418:
394:
336:
1997: Extension is the organized exchange of information and the deliberate transfer of skills.
298:
122:
68:
31:
902:(2013). Working with Smallholders: A Handbook for Firms Building Sustainable Supply Chains.
880:
620:
422:
414:
294:
282:
474:
Colonial agriculture: Experimental stations were established in many Asian countries by the
458:
446:
970:
695:
624:
398:
278:
164:
140:
513:
and equity, has resulted in participatory methods gradually replacing top-down approaches.
8:
866:
685:
665:
955:
823:
in Swanson, B. âImproving Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual (3rd Edition)â FAO
740:
526:
437:
386:
726:
406:
660:
599:
combinations, each of which represents a different extension paradigm, as follows:
550:
502:
487:
130:
887:
716:
510:
390:
19th century, the idea had spread to Denmark, Netherlands, Italy, and France.
964:
567:
432:
was established and Bill Wick developed the first Marine Advisory Program in
378:
637:
578:
understanding, and influence between an organization and its stakeholders.
374:
355:
103:
718:
Chapter 1 - The history, development, and future of agricultural extension
616:
475:
118:
619:(educational + participatory): This paradigm involves methods such as
498:
483:
148:
114:
393:
The term "university extension" was first used by the Universities of
163:
The use of the word 'extension' originated in england in 1866. Modern
852:
Communication for Rural Innovation: Rethinking Agricultural Extension
110:
486:
managers and large landowners. Assistance to small farmers who grew
478:
powers. The focus of attention was usually on export crops such as
950:
865:
Facilitating Sustainable Agriculture: Participatory learning and
841:, National Agricultural and Forestry Extension Service, Vientiane
479:
433:
360:
126:
107:
102:
is the application of scientific research and new knowledge to
946:
Extension pages at the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
908:
821:
The history, development, and future of agricultural extension
566:
The term "extension" has been used to cover widely differing
451:
951:
Extension at the National Institute of Food and Agriculture
608:
approaches to promote predetermined packages of technology.
585:
482:, tea, cotton, and sugar. Technical advice was provided to
463:
117:
people by educators from different disciplines, including
286:
441:
890:, by Robert L. Heath, 2005. Retrieved October 7, 2009.
541:
Developing cases as tools for technology dissemination
289:
and youth activities. Many extension agents work for
367:
271:
hormarin & ballaarin' ("to promote and extend"'
962:
188:world to describe the same or similar concept:
863:Roling, N. and Wagemakers, A. Editors.(1998),
183:, through the itinerant agricultural teachers
714:
373:responsible for agriculture under one of the
255:("to promote and to extend") - ØĒØąŲÛØŦ Ų Ú¯ØŗØĒØąØ´
561:
229:Assistenza tecnica e divulgazione agricola
844:
833:
831:
829:
305:
87:Learn how and when to remove this message
715:Jones, Gwyn E.; Garforth, Chris (1997).
589:
586:Four paradigms of agricultural extension
457:
445:
354:
158:
50:This article includes a list of general
521:Aspects of future extension education:
14:
963:
839:Consolidating Extension in the Lao PDR
826:
604:about the practices they should adopt.
532:Future extension education initiatives
143:receive large amounts of support from
869:in times of environmental uncertainty
442:Four generations of extension in Asia
819:Jones, G.E. and Garforth, C. (1997)
681:Participatory technology development
629:participatory technology development
538:Web enabled technology dissemination
490:was rare, except in times of crisis.
297:. They are sometimes referred to as
36:
854:(3rd Edition), Blackwell Publishing
544:Agriculture as a profitable venture
535:Collegiate participation of farmers
377:emperors organized the teaching of
139:Agricultural extension agencies in
24:
573:The related but separate field of
525:Evolution of extension system and
462:Agricultural extension meeting in
450:Agricultural extension meeting in
430:National Sea Grant College Program
359:Agricultural extension meeting in
56:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
992:
939:
900:International Finance Corporation
850:Leeuwis, C. and van den Ban, A.
723:Food and Agriculture Organization
413:in conjunction with each state's
368:Origins of agricultural extension
237:("training", "capacity building")
153:Food and Agriculture Organization
27:Farm efficiency through education
881:Encyclopedia of public relations
691:Spore (agricultural publication)
547:Scaling up of group mobilization
411:agricultural experiment stations
41:
922:
893:
874:
857:
813:
800:
791:
782:
773:
759:
708:
13:
1:
701:
651:Cooperative extension service
291:cooperative extension service
871:, Cambridge University Press
203:(shomprosharon 'extension')
7:
981:Rural community development
644:
10:
997:
767:"āĻā§āĻˇāĻŋ āĻ¸āĻŽā§āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻ¸āĻžāĻ°āĻŖ āĻ
āĻ§āĻŋāĻĻāĻĒā§āĻ¤āĻ°"
575:agricultural communication
405:In the United States, the
350:
147:organizations such as the
29:
976:International development
671:Farmer Research Committee
145:international development
930:Extension y Comunicacion
676:Home demonstration clubs
656:Diffusion of innovations
409:established a system of
30:Not to be confused with
886:April 16, 2009, at the
562:Communication processes
419:Smith-Lever Act of 1914
295:land-grant universities
155:of the United Nations.
71:more precise citations.
595:
467:
455:
364:
306:Historical definitions
123:agricultural marketing
100:Agricultural extension
32:Agricultural expansion
810:, Aurum Press, London
621:experiential learning
593:
461:
449:
423:cooperative extension
415:land-grant university
358:
283:community development
210:("lighting the path")
159:Extension terminology
696:Krishi Vigyan Kendra
625:Farmer Field Schools
494:from foreign donors.
421:created a system of
141:developing countries
956:Extension education
867:adaptive management
808:The Food Chronology
686:Participatory video
666:Farmer Field School
928:Freire, P. (1969)
806:Trager, J. (1996)
596:
527:operationalisation
468:
456:
365:
224:("popularization")
106:practices through
615:Facilitation for
582:different modes.
551:Micro-enterprises
488:subsistence crops
407:Hatch Act of 1887
217:("advisory work")
97:
96:
89:
16:(Redirected from
988:
933:
926:
920:
919:
917:
916:
907:. Archived from
897:
891:
878:
872:
861:
855:
848:
842:
835:
824:
817:
811:
804:
798:
795:
789:
786:
780:
777:
771:
770:
763:
757:
756:
750:
746:
744:
736:
712:
661:Extension agency
503:Green Revolution
363:village in 1800s
131:business studies
92:
85:
81:
78:
72:
67:this article by
58:inline citations
45:
44:
37:
21:
996:
995:
991:
990:
989:
987:
986:
985:
961:
960:
942:
937:
936:
927:
923:
914:
912:
905:"Farms 2 Firms"
903:
898:
894:
888:Wayback Machine
879:
875:
862:
858:
849:
845:
836:
827:
818:
814:
805:
801:
796:
792:
787:
783:
778:
774:
765:
764:
760:
748:
747:
738:
737:
733:
713:
709:
704:
647:
588:
564:
505:" technologies.
444:
370:
353:
308:
161:
93:
82:
76:
73:
63:Please help to
62:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Extension agent
15:
12:
11:
5:
994:
984:
983:
978:
973:
959:
958:
953:
948:
941:
940:External links
938:
935:
934:
921:
892:
873:
856:
843:
825:
812:
799:
790:
781:
772:
758:
731:
706:
705:
703:
700:
699:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
646:
643:
633:
632:
613:
609:
605:
587:
584:
563:
560:
555:
554:
548:
545:
542:
539:
536:
533:
530:
515:
514:
511:sustainability
506:
495:
491:
443:
440:
369:
366:
352:
349:
348:
347:
344:
341:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
321:
318:
315:
307:
304:
275:
274:
267:
256:
245:
244:("to promote")
238:
231:
225:
218:
211:
204:
197:
160:
157:
95:
94:
49:
47:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
993:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
968:
966:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
943:
931:
925:
911:on 2013-12-03
910:
906:
901:
896:
889:
885:
882:
877:
870:
868:
860:
853:
847:
840:
837:NAFES (2005)
834:
832:
830:
822:
816:
809:
803:
794:
785:
776:
768:
762:
754:
742:
734:
732:92-5-104007-9
728:
724:
720:
719:
711:
707:
697:
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
648:
642:
639:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
601:
600:
592:
583:
579:
576:
571:
569:
568:communication
559:
552:
549:
546:
543:
540:
537:
534:
531:
529:of approaches
528:
524:
523:
522:
519:
512:
507:
504:
500:
496:
492:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
472:
471:
465:
460:
453:
448:
439:
438:
435:
431:
426:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
403:
400:
396:
391:
388:
387:severe famine
382:
380:
379:crop rotation
376:
362:
357:
345:
342:
338:
335:
332:
329:
326:
322:
319:
316:
313:
312:
311:
303:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
272:
268:
265:
261:
257:
254:
250:
246:
243:
240:Thai, Lao:
239:
236:
232:
230:
226:
223:
222:Vulgarisation
219:
216:
212:
209:
205:
202:
198:
195:
191:
190:
189:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
156:
154:
150:
146:
142:
137:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
109:
105:
101:
91:
88:
80:
70:
66:
60:
59:
53:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
929:
924:
913:. Retrieved
909:the original
895:
876:
864:
859:
851:
846:
838:
820:
815:
807:
802:
793:
784:
775:
761:
717:
710:
638:Paulo Freire
634:
597:
580:
572:
565:
556:
520:
516:
469:
428:In 1966 the
427:
404:
392:
383:
375:Zhou dynasty
371:
309:
293:programs at
276:
270:
263:
259:
252:
248:
241:
235:CapacitaciÃŗn
234:
228:
221:
214:
208:Voorlichting
207:
200:
196:("guidance")
193:
185:Wanderlehrer
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
162:
138:
135:
104:agricultural
99:
98:
83:
74:
55:
971:Agriculture
749:|work=
617:empowerment
340:businesses.
247:Persian:
233:Spanish:
227:Italian:
119:agriculture
69:introducing
965:Categories
915:2013-11-18
702:References
499:World Bank
484:plantation
417:, and the
324:standards.
269:Somali:
262:to extend"
260:vistaar ("
258:Hindi:
220:French:
213:German:
201:āĻ¸āĻŽā§āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻ¸āĻžāĻ°āĻŖ
149:World Bank
52:references
751:ignored (
741:cite book
627:(FFS) or
553:promotion
395:Cambridge
253:Gostaresh
242:Song-Suem
206:Dutch:
199:Bengali:
194:Al-Ershad
167:began in
165:extension
111:education
77:July 2016
884:Archived
645:See also
476:colonial
279:economic
215:Beratung
192:Arabic:
151:and the
351:History
266:ā¤ĩā¤ŋā¤¸āĨā¤¤ā¤žā¤°
173:Ireland
65:improve
729:
631:(PTD).
480:rubber
466:, 2006
454:, 2002
434:Oregon
399:Oxford
361:Sweden
299:county
251:&
249:Tarvij
169:Dublin
129:, and
127:health
108:farmer
54:, but
452:Nepal
181:1850s
115:rural
753:help
727:ISBN
464:Laos
397:and
281:and
177:1847
287:4-H
175:in
967::
828:^
745::
743:}}
739:{{
725:.
721:.
264:)-
171:,
133:.
125:,
121:,
918:.
769:.
755:)
735:.
273:)
90:)
84:(
79:)
75:(
61:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
