1376:
795:, while a study of Australia's TIGER-like system found that 50% of the geocoded points were mapped to the wrong property parcel. The accuracy of geocoded data can also have a bearing on the quality of research that uses this data. One study by a group of Iowa researchers found that the common method of geocoding using TIGER datasets as described above, can cause a loss of as much as 40% of the power of a statistical analysis. An alternative is to use
945:) services raises privacy concerns. For example, in mapping crime incidents, law enforcement agencies aim to balance the privacy rights of victims and offenders, with the public's right to know. Law enforcement agencies have experimented with alternative geocoding techniques that allow them to mask a portion of the locational detail (e.g., address specifics that would lead to identifying a victim or offender). As well, in providing online
51:
618:
matches these components to a corresponding street segment with a number range that includes the input value. Then it calculates where the given number falls within the segment's range to estimate a location along the segment. As with the direct match, these algorithms usually have uncertainty handling to handle approximate matches (especially abbreviations such as "E" for "East" and "Dr" for "Drive").
675:
782:– the physical lot may run a distance along the street segment (or could be thought of as a two-dimensional space-filling polygon which may front on several different streets — or worse, for cities with multi-level streets, a three-dimensional shape that meets different streets at several different levels) but the interpolation treats it as a singularity.
774:) includes a maximum upper bound for addresses and is interpolated as though the full address range is used. For example, a segment (block) might have a listed range of 100–199, but the last address at the end of the block is 110. In this case, address 110 would be geocoded to 10% of the distance down the segment rather than near the end.
904:
commonly found in addresses as individual agents. This provides a commonality and duality to control and geographic representation. In addition to scientific publication, the new approach and subsequent prototype gained national media coverage in
Australia. The research was conducted at Curtin University in Perth, Western Australia.
660:
Let's say that this segment (for instance, a block) of
Evergreen Terrace runs from 700 to 799. Even-numbered addresses fall on the east side of Evergreen Terrace, with odd-numbered addresses on the west side of the street. 742 Evergreen Terrace would (probably) be located slightly less than halfway
622:
The algorithm is rarely able to perfectly locate all of the input data; mismatches can occur due to misspelled or incomplete input data, imperfect (usually outdated) reference data, or unique regional geocoding systems that the algorithm does not recognize. Many geocoders provide a follow-up stage to
541:
Input data are the descriptive, textual information (address or building name) which the user wants to turn into numerical, spatial data (latitude and longitude) through the process of geocoding. These are often included in a table with other attributes of the locations. Input data is classified into
485:
Beginning in 2005, geocoding platforms included parcel-centroid geocoding. Parcel-centroid geocoding allowed for a lot of precision in geocoding an address. For example, parcel-centroid allowed a geocoder to determine the centroid of a specific building or lot of land. Platforms were now also able to
823:
to aid in emergency response, maintenance, and navigation. It is also possible to use a combination of these geocoding techniques — using a particular technique for certain cases and situations and other techniques for other cases. In contrast to geocoding of structured postal address records,
617:
The geocode specifies not only a feature, but some location within that feature. The most common (and oldest) example is matching street addresses to street line data. First the geocoder parses the street address into its component parts (street name, number, directional prefix/suffix). The geocoder
589:
for geographic features. It is common for the reference dataset to include multiple attribute columns of geocodes for flexibility or handling of complex geocodes. For example, a street dataset intended to be used for street address geocoding must include not only the street name, but any directional
556:
Absolute input data are the textual descriptions of a location which, alone, can output a spatial representation of that location. This data type outputs an absolute known location independently of other locations. For example, USPS ZIP codes; USPS ZIP+4 codes; complete and partial postal addresses;
521:
The 2010s saw vendors fully support geocoding and reverse geocoding globally. Cloud-based geocoding application programming interface (API) and on-premises geocoding have allowed for a greater match rate, greater precision, and greater speed. There is now a popularity in the idea of geocoding being
512:
2008 and 2009 saw the growth of interactive, user-oriented geocoding platforms – namely MapQuest, Google Maps, Bing Maps, and Global
Positioning Systems (GPS). These platforms were made even more accessible to the public with the simultaneous growth of the mobile industry, specifically smartphones.
806:
Because of this, it is quite important to avoid using interpolated results except for non-critical applications. Interpolated geocoding is usually not appropriate for making authoritative decisions, for example if life safety will be affected by that decision. Emergency services, for example, do
903:
Research has introduced a new approach to the control and knowledge aspects of geocoding, by using an agent-based paradigm. In addition to the new paradigm for geocoding, additional correction techniques and control algorithms have been developed. The approach represents the geographic elements
786:
A very common error is to believe the accuracy ratings of a given map's geocodable attributes. Such accuracy as quoted by vendors has no bearing on an address being attributed to the correct segment or to the correct side of the segment, nor resulting in an accurate position along that correct
585:. Examples include a point dataset of buildings, a line dataset of streets, or a polygon dataset of counties. The attributes of these features must include information that will match the geocodes in the input dataset, such as a name, unique id, or standard geocode such as the United States
549:
Relative input data are the textual descriptions of a location which, alone, cannot specify a spatial representation of that location, but is geographically dependent and geographically relative on other locations. An example of a relative geocode is "Across the street from the Empire State
1032:
598:
The third component is software that matches each geocode in the input dataset to the attributes of a corresponding feature in the reference dataset. Once a match is made, the location of the reference feature can be attached to the input row. These algorithms are of two types:
841:
Natural
Address Codes are a proprietary geocode system that can address an area anywhere on the Earth, or a volume of space anywhere around the Earth. The use of alphanumeric characters instead of only ten digits makes a NAC shorter than its numerical latitude/longitude
639:
where the street network is already mapped within the geographic coordinate space. Each street segment is attributed with address ranges (e.g. house numbers from one segment to the next). Geocoding takes an address, matches it to a street and specific segment (such as a
755:
practices. Address verification will confirm the existence of the address and will eliminate ambiguities. Once the valid address is determined, it is very easy to geocode and determine the latitude/longitude coordinates. Finally, several caveats on using interpolation:
565:, often called "address scrubbing," to find and correct any errors. This is especially important for databases in which participants enter their own location geocodes, frequently resulting in a variety of forms (e.g., "Pennsylvania," "PA," "Penn.") and misspellings.
501:
was able to assign this number to parcels of real estate. This allowed for proper identification and record-keeping. An APN is important for geocoding an area which is covered by a gas or oil lease, and indexing property tax information provided to the public.
606:
The geocoder expects each input item to directly correspond to a single entire feature in the reference dataset. For example, a country or zip code, or matching street addresses to building point reference data. This kind of match is similar to a relational
176:
to a description of a location, usually the name of a place or an addressable location. Geocoding relies on a computer representation of address points, the street / road network, together with postal and administrative boundaries.
907:
With the recent advance in Deep
Learning and Computer Vision, a new geocoding workflow, which leverages Object Detection techniques to directly extract the centroid of the building rooftops as geocoding output, has been proposed.
315:
On 1 July 1963, five-digit ZIP codes were introduced nationwide by the United States Post Office
Department (USPOD). In 1983, nine-digit ZIP+4 codes were brought about as an extra identifier in more accurately locating addresses.
478:
and shipping costs. They can benefit from increased accuracy and efficiency in those bulk mailings, after having a certified database. In the early 2000s, geocoding platforms were also able to support multiple datasets.
447:-coordinate for more than 30 million feature intersections and endpoints and nearly 145 million feature 'shape' points that defined the more than 42 million feature segments that outlined more than 12 million polygons."
738:
While there might be a 742 Evergreen
Terrace in Springfield, there might also be a 742 Evergreen Terrace in Shelbyville. Asking for the city name (and state, province, country, etc. as needed) can solve this problem.
550:
Building." The location being sought cannot be determined without identifying the Empire State
Building. Geocoding platforms often do not support such relative locations, but advances are being made in this direction.
916:
Geocoded locations are useful in many GIS analysis, cartography, decision making workflow, transaction mash-up, or injected into larger business processes. On the web, geocoding is used in services like routing and
777:
Most interpolation implementations will produce a point as their resulting address location. In reality, the physical address is distributed along the length of the segment, i.e. consider geocoding the address of a
763:
Interpolation assumes that the given parcels are evenly distributed along the length of the segment. This is almost never true in real life; it is not uncommon for a geocoded address to be off by several thousand
819:
is useful for mapping a location. For traffic accidents, geocoding to a street intersection or midpoint along a street centerline is a suitable technique. Most highways in developed countries have
760:
The typical attribution of a street segment assumes that all even numbered parcels are on one side of the segment, and all odd numbered parcels are on the other. This is often not true in real life.
533:
Geocoding is a task which involves multiple datasets and processes, all of which work together. Some of the components are provided by the user, while others are built into the geocoding software.
330:(DIME) – the first modern vector mapping model – which ciphered address ranges into street network files and incorporated the "percent along" geocoding algorithm. Still in use by platforms such as
949:
to the public, they also place disclaimers regarding the locational accuracy of points on the map, acknowledging these location masking techniques, and impose terms of use for the information.
561:
To achieve the greatest accuracy, the geocodes in the input dataset need to be as correct as possible, and formatted in standard ways. Thus, it is common to first go through a process of
1227:
611:, except that geocoder algorithms usually incorporate some kind of uncertainty handling to recognize approximate matches (e.g., different capitalization or slight misspellings).
894:, a proprietary system that encodes GCS coordinates as pseudorandom sets of words by dividing the coordinates into three numbers and looking up words in an indexed dictionary.
342:
was intended for the use of the United States Census Bureau, and it involved accurately mapping block faces, digitizing nodes representing street intersections, and forming
320:
433:
429:
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up the block, on the east side of the street. A point would be mapped at that location along the street, perhaps offset a distance to the east of the street centerline.
767:
Interpolation also assumes that the street is straight. If a street is curved then the geocoded location will not necessarily fit the physical location of the address.
439:
Containing address ranges instead of individual addresses, TIGER has since been implemented in nearly all geocoding software platforms used today. By the end of the
1404:
685:
1539:
338:, the "percent along" algorithm denotes where a matched address is located along a reference feature as a percentage of the reference feature's total length.
393:. Geocoding was elevated from the research department into the business world with the acquisition of MIDAS by MapInfo. MapInfo has since been acquired by
807:
not make an authoritative decision based on their interpolations; an ambulance or fire truck will always be dispatched regardless of what the map says.
1634:
1611:
1430:
505:
In 2006, Reverse
Geocoding and reverse APN lookup were introduced to geocoding platforms. This involved geocoding a numerical point location – with a
836:
747:
has multiple "100 Washington Street" locations because several cities have been annexed without changing street names, thus requiring use of unique
1617:
1809:
851:
1520:
696:
525:
The future of geocoding also involves three-dimensional geocoding, indoor geocoding, and multiple language returns for the geocoding platforms.
482:
In 2003, geocoding platforms were capable of merging postal codes with street data, updated monthly. This process became known as "conflation".
1514:
224:): a piece of software or a (web) service that implements a geocoding process i.e. a set of interrelated components in the form of operations,
413:
The end of the 20th century had seen geocoding become more user-oriented, especially via open-source GIS software. Mapping applications and
1529:
1266:
644:, in towns that use the "block" convention). Geocoding then interpolates the position of the address, within the range along the segment.
1570:
1819:
835:
offer a way to create digitally generated addresses where no information exists using satellite imagery and machine learning, e.g.,
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1176:
1072:
1987:
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USPS PO boxes; rural routes; cities; counties; intersections; and named places can all be referenced in a data source absolutely.
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codes, ZIP codes, and ZIP+4 codes. Adoption of a CASS certified software by software vendors allows them to receive discounts in
397:, and has pioneered in merging geocoding with business intelligence; allowing location intelligence to provide solutions for the
115:
1709:
87:
323:
developed groundbreaking software code – e.g. GRID, and SYMAP – all of which were sources for commercial development of GIS.
285:
1880:
94:
1089:
Corbett, James P. Topological principles in cartography. Vol. 48. US Department of
Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1979.
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able to influence business decisions. This is the integration between the geocoding process and business intelligence.
232:
The geographic coordinates representing locations often vary greatly in positional accuracy. Examples include building
68:
1505:
428:
street geocoding. This database – along with the Census' nationwide coverage of households – allowed for the birth of
292:, who has since been acknowledged as the father of GIS. The CGIS was used to store and analyze data collected for the
1763:
1053:
865:
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attempting to geocode new addresses for a street that is not yet added to the geographic information system database.
714:
134:
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to assess the quality of their address-standardizing software. The annually renewed CASS certification is based on
389:
In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS) became the first desktop geocoding software, designed for the
101:
1563:
228:, and data sources that work together to produce a spatial representation for descriptive locational references.
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1768:
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459:
72:
83:
1932:
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383:
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327:
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In 1967, a team at the Census Bureau – including the mathematician James Corbett and Donald Cooke – invented
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869:
506:
467:
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1841:
1835:
752:
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or district names for disambiguation. Geocoding accuracy can be greatly improved by first utilizing good
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1719:
1593:
1556:
1955:
1714:
1228:"On the accuracy of TIGER-type geocoded address data in relation to cadastral and census areal units"
858:
731:
distinguishing between ambiguous addresses such as 742 Evergreen Terrace and 742 W Evergreen Terrace.
440:
421:
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and MOSS. The early 1980s saw the rise of many more commercial vendors of geocoding software, namely
253:
17:
1927:
1892:
727:
However, this process is not always as straightforward as in this example. Difficulties arise when
574:
689:
that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
346:. New Haven, Connecticut, was the first city on Earth with a geocodable streets network database.
1285:"Geocoding accuracy and the recovery of relationships between environmental exposures and health"
918:
828:
maps place names in unstructured document collections to their corresponding spatial footprints.
257:
61:
1526:
1875:
444:
173:
165:
108:
1201:
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1101:
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is a map projection system for assigning coordinates to locations on the surface of the Earth.
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654:
293:
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692:
204:
161:
8:
1937:
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379:
157:
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815:
In rural areas or other places lacking high quality street network data and addressing,
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The second necessary dataset specifies the locations of geographic features in a common
424:, the U.S. Bureau of Census was able to put together a large geospatial database, using
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1702:
1697:
1692:
1484:
1311:
1284:
1258:
1069:
1010:
1000:
875:
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210:
1033:
International Encyclopedia of Geography: People, the Earth, Environment and Technology
1982:
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1664:
1659:
1623:
1488:
1316:
1049:
1005:
942:
169:
168:, frequently latitude/longitude pair, to identify a location on the Earth's surface.
1354:
1262:
1151:
1045:
1605:
1476:
1350:
1306:
1296:
1250:
1041:
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is the geocoordinate standard used by NATO militaries for locating points on Earth.
582:
487:
386:
with the approach of organizing this spatial information into database structures.
343:
273:
1533:
1521:
The Evolution of Geocoding: Moving Away from Conflation Confliction to Best Match
1076:
800:
578:
312:. However, the CGIS lasted until the 1990s and was never available commercially.
289:
209:
In general is a human-readable and short identifier; like a nominal-geocode as
1779:
1629:
968:
562:
498:
471:
402:
35:
1254:
156:, is the process of taking a text-based description of a location, such as an
1976:
1947:
1903:
946:
885:
779:
744:
632:
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suffixes or prefixes and the range of address numbers found on each segment.
425:
398:
375:
355:
868:(GEOREF), developed for global military operations, replaced by the current
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1651:
1320:
1301:
990:
792:
475:
462:
address standardization. The CASS certification is offered to all software
394:
309:
241:
1428:
1961:
1867:
1335:
980:
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or "Plus Codes," developed by Google and released into the public domain.
748:
331:
297:
245:
237:
791:
TIGER datasets, 5–7.5% of the addresses may be allocated to a different
1814:
1758:
1687:
1527:
A Flexible Addressing System for Approximate Geocoe best geocoding ding
1480:
995:
985:
926:
891:
832:
796:
641:
608:
363:
39:
1919:
1804:
1748:
1068:"Geocode" term as a verb, as defined by Oxford English Dictionary at
963:
820:
586:
359:
225:
50:
1908:
1729:
335:
305:
301:
249:
233:
200:
1548:
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Because the mail-out/mail-back technique was so successful in the
185:): provide geographical coordinates corresponding to (a location).
1886:
1774:
1753:
1579:
1392:
An Agent-Based Framework to Enable Intelligent Geocoding Services
958:
881:
308:
at a scale of 1:50,000, in order to regulate land capability for
214:
188:
31:
450:
TIGER was the breakthrough for "big data" geospatial solutions.
1640:
1509:
1343:
International Journal of Computer and Communication Engineering
740:
463:
1378:
Developing an Agent-Based Framework for Intelligent Geocoding
1127:"Geographic Information Systems at Yale: Geocoding Resources"
771:
371:
321:
Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis
1030:
Leidner, J.L. (2017). "Georeferencing: From Texts to Maps".
434:
Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing
1799:
686:
personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
367:
196:
382:. These platforms merged the 1960s approach of separating
1429:
Department of Education, Western Australia (April 2011).
1235:
International Journal of Geographical Information Science
930:
922:
816:
390:
799:
or image coded data such as the Address Point data from
276:– has been a subject of interest since the early 1960s.
941:
The proliferation and ease of access to geocoding (and
1405:"Difficult addresses no problem for IntelliGeoLocator"
803:
in the UK, but such datasets are generally expensive.
27:
Process of turning a place name/address to coordinates
1540:
The UCDP and AidData codebook on geo-referencing aid
1283:
Mazumdar S, Rushton G, Smith B, et al. (2008).
1282:
1070:
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/geocode
1225:
75:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1333:
1402:
1152:"Spatially enabling the data: What is geocoding?"
1974:
1457:"A deep learning approach for rooftop geocoding"
1334:Rwerekane, Valentin; Ndashimye, Maurice (2017).
284:In 1960, the first operational GIS – named the
852:Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
770:Segment Information (esp. from sources such as
635:. This method makes use of data from a street
1542:– guide for geocoding development aid projects
787:segment. With the geocoding process used for
417:had become more accessible over the Internet.
1564:
1029:
884:, a public domain system based on the Morton
623:manually review and correct suspect matches.
971:, which includes methods of geocoding images
1336:"Natural Area Coding Based Postcode Scheme"
1289:International Journal of Health Geographics
1156:National Criminal Justice Reference Service
240:centroids, interpolated locations based on
1571:
1557:
1374:
1310:
1300:
715:Learn how and when to remove this message
358:geocoding platforms were in development:
135:Learn how and when to remove this message
631:A simple method of geocoding is address
626:
664:
14:
1975:
1403:Jennifer Foreshew (24 November 2009).
493:2005 also saw the introduction of the
1552:
593:
466:and advertising mailers who want the
460:Coding Accuracy Support System (CASS)
199:that represents a geographic entity (
1455:Yin, Zhengcong; et al. (2019).
1124:
668:
568:
528:
486:determine the elevation of specific
468:United States Postal Services (USPS)
286:Canada Geographic Information System
73:adding citations to reliable sources
44:
1578:
1454:
936:
810:
244:ranges, street segments centroids,
24:
509:– to a textual, readable address.
25:
1999:
1536:– paper presented at Geoinfo 2003
1499:
866:World Geographic Reference System
296:, which mapped information about
1515:Three Standard Geocoding Methods
1381:(PhD thesis). Curtin University.
673:
536:
458:The early 2000s saw the rise of
49:
1448:
1422:
1396:
1385:
1368:
1355:10.17706/IJCCE.2017.6.3.161-172
1327:
1276:
1046:10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0160
861:, popular with radio operators.
60:needs additional citations for
1988:Geographic information systems
1785:Military Grid Reference System
1769:International Map of the World
1506:Geographic Information Systems
1375:Hutchinson, Matthew J (2010).
1219:
1194:
1169:
1144:
1118:
1094:
1081:
1062:
1023:
929:media, such as photographs or
846:Military Grid Reference System
495:Assessor's Parcel Number (APN)
172:, on the other hand, converts
13:
1:
1853:Ordnance Survey National Grid
1016:
975:Geographic information system
637:geographic information system
328:Dual Independent Map Encoding
288:(CGIS) – was invented by Dr.
270:Geographic Information System
1838:(north-east Atlantic region)
1517:(in North America) – article
1226:Ratcliffe, Jerry H. (2001).
870:Global Area Reference System
354:In the late 1970s, two main
7:
1933:ITU-T country calling codes
1847:National Topographic System
1842:Irish grid reference system
1836:ICES Statistical Rectangles
1177:"25th Anniversary of TIGER"
952:
925:provides location data for
898:
10:
2004:
1938:ITU-T mobile calling codes
647:
263:
29:
1956:Maidenhead Locator System
1946:
1918:
1904:United Kingdom post codes
1866:
1828:
1739:
1728:
1673:
1650:
1586:
1255:10.1080/13658810110047221
859:Maidenhead Locator System
921:. Geocoding, along with
575:spatial reference system
516:
453:
408:
349:
279:
268:Geocoding – a subset of
213:, or a grid-geocode, as
30:Not to be confused with
1131:guides.library.yale.edu
911:
258:Administrative division
1893:New Zealand post codes
1302:10.1186/1476-072X-7-13
1181:census.maps.arcgis.com
695:by rewriting it in an
577:, usually stored in a
507:longitude and latitude
174:geographic coordinates
166:geographic coordinates
1889:(Republic of Ireland)
1876:Australian post codes
1075:26 April 2018 at the
655:742 Evergreen Terrace
627:Address interpolation
443:, TIGER "contained a
344:spatial relationships
294:Canada Land Inventory
246:postal code centroids
1587:Administrative codes
1532:21 July 2011 at the
753:address verification
665:Complicating factors
391:DOS operating system
69:improve this article
1928:ITU-R country codes
1898:Postal Index Number
1473:2019TrGIS..23..495Y
1461:Transactions in GIS
1247:2001IJGIS..15..473R
553:Absolute input data
546:Relative input data
497:. A jurisdiction's
384:spatial information
380:MapInfo Corporation
84:"Address geocoding"
1960:Historical :
1795:Open Location Code
1630:MARC country codes
1481:10.1111/tgis.12536
1431:"X marks the spot"
1125:Olivares, Miriam.
1011:Toponym resolution
1001:Linear referencing
876:Open Location Code
826:toponym resolution
697:encyclopedic style
684:is written like a
652:Take for example:
614:Interpolated match
594:Geocoder algorithm
445:latitude/longitude
211:ISO 3166-1 alpha-2
1970:
1969:
1862:
1861:
1790:Natural Area Code
1720:FIFA country code
1710:Aircraft prefixes
1683:IANA country code
1665:ICAO airport code
1660:IATA airport code
1594:FIPS country code
1006:Reverse geocoding
943:reverse geocoding
725:
724:
717:
569:Reference dataset
542:two categories:
529:Geocoding process
170:Reverse geocoding
160:or the name of a
150:Address geocoding
145:
144:
137:
119:
16:(Redirected from
1995:
1737:
1736:
1715:IOC country code
1626:(United Kingdom)
1606:FIPS county code
1573:
1566:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1493:
1492:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1400:
1394:
1389:
1383:
1382:
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1366:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1340:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1314:
1304:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1272:on 23 June 2006.
1271:
1265:. Archived from
1232:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1187:
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1137:
1122:
1116:
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1113:
1111:
1106:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1027:
937:Privacy concerns
811:Other techniques
720:
713:
709:
706:
700:
677:
676:
669:
583:spatial database
274:spatial analysis
164:, and returning
140:
133:
129:
126:
120:
118:
77:
53:
45:
21:
2003:
2002:
1998:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1992:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1942:
1914:
1911:(United States)
1858:
1824:
1771:indexing system
1732:
1724:
1669:
1646:
1612:FIPS state code
1600:FIPS place code
1582:
1580:Geocode systems
1577:
1546:
1534:Wayback Machine
1502:
1497:
1496:
1453:
1449:
1439:
1437:
1427:
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1199:
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1185:
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1149:
1145:
1135:
1133:
1123:
1119:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1100:
1099:
1095:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1077:Wayback Machine
1067:
1063:
1056:
1028:
1024:
1019:
955:
939:
914:
901:
813:
801:Ordnance Survey
721:
710:
704:
701:
693:help improve it
690:
678:
674:
667:
650:
629:
596:
579:GIS file format
571:
539:
531:
519:
456:
415:geospatial data
411:
403:private sectors
352:
290:Roger Tomlinson
282:
266:
208:
141:
130:
124:
121:
78:
76:
66:
54:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2001:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1968:
1967:
1965:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1924:
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1916:
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1826:
1825:
1823:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1780:Marsden square
1777:
1772:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1745:
1743:
1734:
1726:
1725:
1723:
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1700:
1695:
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1543:
1537:
1524:
1518:
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1501:
1500:External links
1498:
1495:
1494:
1467:(3): 495–514.
1447:
1435:School Matters
1421:
1409:The Australian
1395:
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1367:
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1326:
1275:
1241:(5): 473–485.
1218:
1193:
1168:
1143:
1117:
1093:
1080:
1061:
1054:
1021:
1020:
1018:
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1008:
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998:
993:
988:
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978:
972:
969:Geocoded photo
966:
961:
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951:
938:
935:
913:
910:
900:
897:
896:
895:
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839:
812:
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768:
765:
761:
736:
735:
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666:
663:
649:
646:
628:
625:
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530:
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455:
452:
410:
407:
351:
348:
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278:
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262:
230:
229:
218:
186:
143:
142:
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6:
4:
3:
2:
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1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1963:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1948:Amateur radio
1945:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
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1907:
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1696:
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1676:
1675:Country codes
1672:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1652:Airport codes
1649:
1642:
1639:
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1619:
1616:
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1598:
1595:
1592:
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1371:
1356:
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1313:
1308:
1303:
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1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1229:
1222:
1207:
1203:
1202:"Google Maps"
1197:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1103:
1097:
1090:
1084:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1065:
1057:
1055:9780470659632
1051:
1047:
1043:
1040:: 2897–2907.
1039:
1035:
1034:
1026:
1022:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
976:
973:
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967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
956:
950:
948:
947:crime mapping
944:
934:
932:
928:
924:
920:
909:
905:
893:
890:
887:
886:Z-order curve
883:
880:
877:
874:
871:
867:
863:
860:
856:
853:
850:
847:
844:
840:
838:
834:
831:
830:
829:
827:
822:
818:
808:
804:
802:
798:
794:
790:
781:
780:shopping mall
776:
773:
769:
766:
762:
759:
758:
757:
754:
750:
746:
745:Massachusetts
742:
733:
730:
729:
728:
719:
716:
708:
705:December 2014
698:
694:
688:
687:
682:This section
680:
671:
670:
662:
658:
657:
656:
645:
643:
638:
634:
633:interpolation
624:
616:
613:
610:
605:
602:
601:
600:
591:
588:
584:
580:
576:
566:
564:
555:
552:
548:
545:
544:
543:
537:Input dataset
534:
526:
523:
514:
510:
508:
503:
500:
496:
491:
489:
483:
480:
477:
473:
469:
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461:
451:
448:
446:
442:
437:
435:
431:
427:
423:
418:
416:
406:
404:
400:
396:
392:
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
356:public domain
347:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
324:
322:
319:In 1964, the
317:
313:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
277:
275:
271:
261:
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255:
251:
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227:
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206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
187:
184:
180:
179:
178:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
139:
136:
128:
117:
114:
110:
107:
103:
100:
96:
93:
89:
86: –
85:
81:
80:Find sources:
74:
70:
64:
63:
58:This article
56:
52:
47:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
1868:Postal codes
1545:
1464:
1460:
1450:
1438:. Retrieved
1434:
1424:
1412:. Retrieved
1408:
1398:
1387:
1377:
1370:
1358:. Retrieved
1346:
1342:
1329:
1292:
1288:
1278:
1267:the original
1238:
1234:
1221:
1209:. Retrieved
1205:
1196:
1184:. Retrieved
1180:
1171:
1159:. Retrieved
1155:
1146:
1134:. Retrieved
1130:
1120:
1108:. Retrieved
1096:
1088:
1083:
1064:
1037:
1031:
1025:
991:Georeference
940:
919:local search
915:
906:
902:
821:mile markers
814:
805:
793:census tract
785:
749:postal codes
737:
726:
711:
702:
683:
659:
653:
651:
630:
621:
603:Direct match
597:
572:
560:
540:
532:
524:
520:
511:
504:
499:tax assessor
492:
484:
481:
476:bulk mailing
457:
449:
438:
426:interpolated
419:
412:
395:Pitney Bowes
388:
353:
325:
318:
314:
310:rural Canada
283:
267:
242:thoroughfare
231:
221:
192:
182:
153:
152:, or simply
149:
148:
146:
131:
125:January 2014
122:
112:
105:
98:
91:
79:
67:Please help
62:verification
59:
1962:QRA locator
1820:WMO squares
1733:place codes
1596:(FIPS 10-4)
1206:Google Maps
981:Geolocation
842:equivalent.
833:Place codes
789:U.S. Census
441:1990 Census
422:1980 Census
332:Google Maps
298:agriculture
260:Centroids.
238:land parcel
36:Geolocating
1977:Categories
1815:what3words
1759:Geohash-36
1688:ISO 3166-1
1614:(FIPS 5-2)
1608:(FIPS 6-4)
1102:"Short CV"
1017:References
996:Geotagging
986:Geoparsing
927:geotagging
892:What3words
797:orthophoto
609:table join
587:FIPS codes
364:Intergraph
226:algorithms
220:Geocoder (
95:newspapers
40:Geotagging
1920:Telephony
1805:UN/LOCODE
1749:C-squares
1635:SGC codes
1624:GSS codes
1602:(FIPS 55)
1523:– article
1489:195804197
1360:25 August
964:Gazetteer
837:Robocodes
360:GRASS GIS
250:ZIP codes
234:centroids
195:): is a
181:Geocode (
154:geocoding
18:Geocoding
1983:Geocodes
1909:ZIP Code
1887:Eircodes
1883:(Brazil)
1849:(Canada)
1829:Regional
1730:Geodesic
1637:(Canada)
1530:Archived
1321:18387189
1295:: 1–13.
1263:14061774
1073:Archived
953:See also
899:Research
336:MapQuest
306:forestry
302:wildlife
217:geocode.
201:location
1900:(India)
1775:Mapcode
1754:Geohash
1703:numeric
1698:alpha-3
1693:alpha-2
1641:UN M.49
1469:Bibcode
1312:2359739
1243:Bibcode
1211:9 April
1186:22 June
1161:22 June
1136:22 June
1110:9 April
959:Geocode
933:items.
882:Geohash
872:(GARS).
691:Please
648:Example
488:parcels
464:vendors
264:History
256:), and
248:(e.g.
215:Geohash
189:Geocode
158:address
109:scholar
32:Geocode
1764:GEOREF
1741:Global
1510:Curlie
1487:
1319:
1309:
1261:
1052:
741:Boston
399:public
378:, and
304:, and
272:(GIS)
205:object
111:
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90:
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1485:S2CID
1440:9 May
1414:9 May
1339:(PDF)
1270:(PDF)
1259:S2CID
1231:(PDF)
1105:(PDF)
977:(GIS)
772:TIGER
764:feet.
642:block
517:2010s
454:2000s
430:TIGER
409:1990s
376:ERDAS
372:CARIS
350:1980s
280:1960s
254:CEDEX
162:place
116:JSTOR
102:books
38:, or
1855:(UK)
1800:QDGC
1643:(UN)
1620:(EU)
1618:NUTS
1442:2011
1416:2011
1362:2022
1317:PMID
1213:2023
1188:2016
1163:2016
1138:2016
1112:2023
1050:ISBN
912:Uses
864:the
857:the
401:and
368:ESRI
340:DIME
334:and
222:noun
197:code
193:noun
183:verb
88:news
1881:CEP
1810:UTM
1508:at
1477:doi
1351:doi
1307:PMC
1297:doi
1251:doi
1042:doi
931:RSS
923:GPS
817:GPS
581:or
436:).
203:or
71:by
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123:(
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20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
