248:, the pressure for Germanisation was lessened and many German landowners feared that this would lead to lessening the German control over the Polish areas and in the end deprive Germany of what they saw as a natural reservoir of workforce and land. Although the actual extent of von Caprivi's concessions towards the Poles was very limited, the German minority of Greater Poland feared that this was a step too far, and that von Caprivi's government would cede the power in Greater Poland to the Polish clergy and nobility. The Hakata slogan was: "You are standing opposite to the most dangerous, fanatic enemy of German existence, German honour and German reputation in the world: The Poles."
404:, an official authority with a fund to buy up the land from the Poles and redistribute it among German settlers. Since 1905 the organisation also proposed and lobbied for a law that would allow forced eviction of Polish owners of land, and succeed in 1908 when the law was eventually passed. However, it remained on paper in the following years, to which the H-K-T responded with large scale propaganda campaign in the press. The campaign proved to be successful and on October 12, 1912, the Prussian government issued a decision allowing eviction of Polish property owners in Greater Poland.
558:), a society that aimed at preventing newly restored Poland from acquiring the lands that were formerly in Prussia. Many more of its members feared possible Polish reprisals after the take-over of Greater Poland, Pomerania and Silesia, and were among the first to pack their belongings and head westwards after the armistice, while others stayed in the lands that were taken over by Poland, protected by the
152:
523:
For instance, the
Settlement Commission throughout the 27 years of its existence managed to plant about 25,000 German families on 1,240 km (479 mi) of land in Greater Poland and Pomerania. However, at the same time the reaction of Polish societies resulted in about 35,000 new Polish farmers
570:
mostly rejected the pleas as there were many more
Germans in Poland than Poles in Germany, and such a tit-for-tat tactics would harm the German side more. The Society continued to exist in Berlin, limiting its activities mostly to a press campaign and rhetoric, but its meaning was seriously limited.
494:
By 1913 the
Society had roughly 48,000 members. Despite its fierce rhetoric, support from the local administration and certain popularity of its goals, the Society proved to be largely unsuccessful as were the projects it promoted. Much like other similar organizations, the H-K-T not only managed to
537:
the nationalisms on both sides ran high and the liberal politicians who were seeking some compromise with the German Empire were seen as traitors, while German politicians trying to tone down the aggressive rhetoric on both sides were under attack from the
Hakatisten. This situation proved vital to
326:
rationale behind formation of the H-K-T was presented as a national Polish-German struggle to assimilate one group into the other. It was argued that either the Poles would be successfully
Germanized, or the Germans living in the east would face the Polonization themselves. This conflict was often
321:
in the
Eastern Marches through the revival and consolidation of German national feeling and the economic strengthening of the German people" in the area. This was seen as justified due to alleged passivity of Germans in the eastern territories. Officially it was to work for the Germans rather than
368:
for the German public and shaped the national-conservative views towards the ethnic conflict in the eastern territories of
Germany. The Society also opened a number of libraries in the Polish-dominated areas, where it supported the literary production of books and novels promoting an aggressive
322:
against the Poles. However, in reality the aims of the society were anti-Polish and aimed at ousting the Polish landowners and peasants from their land at all cost. It was argued that the Poles were an insidious threat to German national and cultural integrity and domination in the east. The
532:
All in all, even though the H-K-T Society was not the most influential and its exact influence on the German governments is disputable, it was among the best-heard and for the Polish people became one of the symbols of oppression, chauvinism, and national discrimination, thus poisoning the
90:
in German eastern provinces. Contrary to many similar nationalist organizations created in that period, the
Ostmarkenverein had relatively close ties with the government and local administration, which made it largely successful, even though it opposed both the policy of seeking some
345:(modern Gdańsk), the Society demanded from the government that Polish be banned even from voluntary classes in schools and universities, that the language be banned from public use, and that Polish-language newspapers be either liquidated or forced to be printed in
230:. Many observers believed these policies only further stoked the Polish independence movement. There is also a question regarding possible personal antipathy towards Poles behind Bismarck's motivation in pursuing the Kulturkampf. Unlike in other parts of the
504:. In addition, the main opposition centre on the Polish side became the middle class rather than aristocracy, which strengthened the Polish resistance and intensified the national sentiment within the Polish society. Also, the pressure from the German
327:
portrayed as a constant biological struggle between the "eastern barbarity" and "European culture". To counter the alleged threat, the
Society promoted the destruction of Polish national identity in the Polish lands held by Germany, and prevention of
376:
However, it did not limit itself to mere cultural struggle for domination but also promoted a physical removal of the Poles from their lands in order to make space for the German colonization. The pressure of the H-K-T indeed made the government of
524:
being settled in the area of roughly 1,500 km (579 mi) of land. Similarly, the attempts at banning the teaching of religion in Polish met with a nationwide resistance and several school strikes that sparked a campaign in foreign media.
499:
within German public and radicalise the German policies in the area, but also sparked a Polish reaction. As an effect of the external pressure, the Poles living in the German Empire started to organize themselves in order to prevent the plans of
336:
In accordance with the views of
Chancellor von Bismarck himself, the Society saw the language question as a key factor in determining one's loyalty towards the state. Because of this view, it insisted on extending the ban on usage of the
562:. Even though the Ostmarkenverein had lost its main rationale as Germany had no influence over the lands of the Republic of Poland, it continued to exist in a rump form. Headed from Berlin, it tried to force the government of the
225:
that in Posen Province took on a much more nationalistic character than in other parts of Germany and included a number of specifically anti-Polish laws that resulted in the Polish and German communities living in a virtual
105:'s policies of relaxation of anti-Polish measures. While of limited significance and often overrated, the organization formed a notable part of German anti-democratic pluralist part of the political landscape of the
424:
to the area, while the Junkers gained large profits from seasonal workers migrating there every year, mostly from other parts of Poland. Also the German colonists brought to formerly Polish lands by the
24:
575:'s rule in Germany, it was disbanded by the Nazis. Some of its former members, now living in Poland, remained members of other German societies and organizations, and formed the core of the German
286:. Many landowners feared that their interests would not be properly represented by those organizations and decided to form their own society. It was officially launched November 3, 1894, in
566:
to use the threat of reprisals against the remaining Polish minority in Germany in order to win further concessions for the German minority in Poland. However, the post-war government of
306:. The social base of the newly founded society was wide and included a large spectrum of people. Some 60% of the representatives of areas of Germany primarily inhabited by Poles were the
441:
members of the local administration, and not the Prussian Junkers. Other notable group of supporters included the local artisans and businessmen, whose interests were endangered by the
240:—the Kulturkampf did not cease after the end of the decade. Although Bismarck finally signed an informal alliance with the Catholic Church against the socialists, the policies of
279:
120:. In 1901 it had roughly 21,000 members, the number rose to 48,000 in 1913, though some authors claim the membership was as high as 220,000. After Poland was re-established following
1590:
283:
1029:
333:
of the Eastern Marches, that is the growing national sentiment amongst local Poles paired with migration of Poles from rural areas to the cities of the region.
262:
1575:
314:. The rest were all groups of middle class Germans, that is civil servants (30%), teachers (25%), merchants, craftsmen, Protestant priests, and clerks.
1570:
1030:"Two Archaeologies in one Country: Official Prussian versus amateur Polish activities in Mid-Western (i.e.: Greater) Poland in XIXth-early XXth cent"
639:
As evidenced by some of his remarks and speeches, for instance the one to the Lower House of the Prussian Parliament of January 28, 1886, in:
1545:
996:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1540:
1580:
373:(Ostmark novels) depicted Poles as non-white and struggled to portray a two race dichotomy between "black" Poles and "white" Germans
1585:
1465:
1118:
1595:
1550:
1349:
1420:
1315:
1275:
1202:
922:
895:
711:
1376:
818:
778:
742:
681:
416:, it was one of the groups to oppose the Society's goals the most. Initially treated with reserve by most of the conservative
1120:
Deutsche Sprachgeschichte 3: vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart.: 19. Und 20. Jahrhundert (History of the German language)
341:
in schools, to other instances of everyday life, including public meetings, books, and newspapers. During a 1902 meeting in
1072:
429:
or the German government largely benefited from the cooperation with their Polish neighbours and mostly either ignored the
392:
An important issue was the colonisation of Polish territory: the organisation actively supported the nationalist policy of
210:
within the German society. The tendencies went in two different directions, but were linked to each other. On one hand, a
1236:
864:
449:
and other similar organizations. In a sample probe of H-K-T's members, the social classes represented were as follows:
381:
adopt a firmer stance against the Poles. The ban on Polish schools was reintroduced and all teaching was to be done in
167:
1512:
Germanizing Prussian Poland: The H-K-T Society and the Struggle for the Eastern Marches in the German Empire 1894-1919
1304:
Germany's colonial pasts Eric Ames, Marcia Klotz, Lora Wildenthal, page 84–86, University of Nebraska Press 2005
244:
did continue in Polish-inhabited parts of the country. However, with the end of von Bismarck's rule and the advent of
198:'s government, the ethnic and cultural tensions in the region began to rise. This was paired by growing tendencies of
1475:
1430:
1386:
1359:
1325:
1289:
1246:
1212:
1185:
1155:
1128:
1037:
932:
905:
878:
832:
788:
756:
725:
691:
190:, which was formed in 1871. Primarily inhabited by Poles, Greater Poland initially was formed into a semi-autonomous
1521:
Die Hakatisten. Der deutsche Ostmarkenverein. Ein Beitrag der Geschichte der Ostpolitik des deutschen Imperialismus
509:
294:. The opening meeting elected an assembly and a general committee composed of 227 members, among them 104 from the
1145:
433:
or even actively opposed their ideas. This made the Ostmarkenverein an organization formed mostly by the German
550:
The works of the Ostmarkenverein practically ceased during the war. At its end, some of its members joined the
446:
426:
401:
420:, with time it became actively opposed by many of them. The Society opposed any immigration of Poles from the
396:
through removal of Polish population and promoting settlement of ethnic Germans in the eastern regions of the
218:. And on the other, feelings of hostility towards other national groups within the German state were growing.
542:
during the Great War, as the Polish political scene was taken over mostly by politicians hostile to Germany.
98:
1175:
1600:
211:
128:
until it was closed down by the Nazis in 1934 who created the new organisation with similar activity
299:
717:
352:
With limited local success and support, the Ostmarkenverein functioned primarily as a nationwide
275:
67:
1004:
870:
824:
75:
55:
1449:
1147:
Myth of the Nation and Vision of Revolution: Ideological Polarization in the Twentieth Century
1059:
1402:
748:
683:
The Nation As a Local Metaphor: Wurttemberg, Imperial Germany, and National Memory, 1871-1918
668:
607:
271:
1105:
1317:
National Identity and Weimar Germany: Upper Silesia and the Eastern Border, 1918–1922
1281:
1080:
417:
191:
163:
129:
8:
642:
580:
183:
1471:
1426:
1382:
1355:
1321:
1285:
1242:
1208:
1181:
1151:
1124:
962:
928:
901:
874:
828:
784:
752:
721:
687:
567:
517:
295:
267:
195:
87:
71:
533:
Polish-German relations both in the borderland and in entire Germany. On the eve of
221:
The situation was further aggravated by Bismarck's policies of anti-Catholic Church
1461:
820:
Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change After Bismarck
952:
563:
559:
421:
382:
378:
338:
245:
125:
102:
28:
1084:
357:
257:
171:
156:
389:
movement as they interpreted all public meetings as educational undertakings.
1534:
966:
597:
513:
501:
397:
393:
303:
241:
236:
231:
187:
175:
93:
79:
445:, that is the Polish response to the economical competition promoted by the
1271:
576:
572:
539:
442:
438:
329:
179:
508:
resulted in strengthening the Polish national-democrats, particularly the
592:
534:
505:
434:
386:
222:
215:
203:
199:
121:
48:
1177:
Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences
1173:
1204:
The Rise of Historical Economics and Social Reform in Germany 1864-1894
353:
323:
207:
106:
51:
155:
German 1905 map showing the extent of the Polish-speaking majority in
686:. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Univ. of North Carolina Press. pp. 98–105.
602:
364:(Eastern March) was one of the primary sources of information on the
346:
318:
227:
44:
862:
317:
The official aims of the society was "strengthening and rallying of
287:
113:
957:
256:
Under such circumstances a number of nationalist organizations and
54:
organization founded in 1894. Mainly among Poles, it was sometimes
385:. The ban was also used by the German police to harass the Polish
194:, granted with a certain level of self-governance. However, under
83:
1495:(in German). Berlin: Rütten und Loening. 1961. pp. 199–215.
1491:"Die Rolle des DOV bei der Bildung einer 5. Kolonne in Polen".
1422:
Orphans of Versailles: The Germans in Western Poland, 1918-1939
1027:
627:
413:
342:
311:
307:
117:
234:, in Greater Poland—then known under the German name of
151:
453:
26.6% of civil servants and members of German administration
647:(in German). Berlin: Deutsche Bibliothek. pp. 173–186.
924:
History of Germany, 1780-1918: The Long Nineteenth Century
893:
124:
in 1918, the society continued its rump activities in the
1470:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–20.
626:
The nickname itself may have been influenced by the name
950:
863:
Eric Ames; Marcia Klotz; Lora Wildenthal, eds. (2005).
1467:
Ethics and Extermination: Reflections on Nazi Genocide
1277:
A History of Modern Germany, Volume 3: 1840–1945
400:. It was among the main supporters of creation of the
1444:
1442:
1174:
Keith Bullivant; Geoffrey Giles; Walter Pape (1999).
900:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 203–206.
39:
Verein zur Förderung des Deutschtums in den Ostmarken
1591:
19th-century establishments in the Province of Posen
1395:
994:
412:
Although the H-K-T is primarily associated with the
1509:
1023:
1021:
1439:
1347:
1200:
1070:
1052:
166:in late 18th century, a large part of the former
139:fanatic enemy of German existence, German honour
1532:
1460:
1425:. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 13–25.
1123:(in German). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 28–29.
1116:
1077:Nationalism and Communism in East Central Europe
1018:
920:
1523:(in German). Berlin: Verlag der Wissenschaften.
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1143:
776:
633:
214:was demanded with desires of creating a German
141:and German reputation in the world: The Poles.
1493:Der deutsche Imperialismusund der 2. Weltkrieg
1418:
1313:
1234:
709:
1484:
1194:
740:
640:
116:, in 1896 its main headquarters was moved to
1334:
1320:. University of Nebraska Press. p. 15.
1270:
1169:
1167:
1150:. Transaction Publishers. pp. 127–129.
990:
988:
986:
984:
982:
679:
290:, then referred to under its German name of
37:
1374:
661:
538:the failure of German plans of creation of
1518:
1381:. Oxford University Press US. p. 28.
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1241:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 129–131.
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1028:Jarmila Kaczmarek; Andrzej Prinke (2000).
997:"Założenie "Hakaty" (Founding of "H-K-T")"
914:
816:
260:was formed, all collectively known as the
1414:
1412:
1410:
1164:
1064:
1034:Poznań Archaeological Museum publications
979:
783:. London: Penguin Books. pp. 45–47.
484:
302:, and additional 113 from other parts of
1571:Political organisations based in Germany
1454:
1098:
545:
150:
1255:
1221:
946:
944:
772:
770:
768:
705:
703:
369:stance against the Poles. The popular
1533:
1407:
1307:
1137:
1110:
1003:(in Polish). Polska.pl. Archived from
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
846:
844:
812:
810:
808:
806:
804:
802:
800:
673:
310:, the landed aristocracy, mostly with
78:. Its main aims were the promotion of
1368:
1238:A History Of Modern Germany 1800-2000
951:Karl Friedrich GrĂĽndler (July 2004).
927:. Blackwell Publishing. p. 324.
894:Mary Fulbrook; John Breuilly (1997).
97:with the Poles pursued by Chancellor
1576:Germany–Poland relations (1918–1939)
1546:Organizations disestablished in 1934
941:
765:
700:
495:incite some public awareness to the
1207:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1073:"Lecture 6: Poland 1864–1914"
841:
797:
137:You are facing the most dangerous,
16:Historical german nationalist group
13:
1566:Organizations of the German Empire
1561:Colonisation of Partitioned Poland
1502:
480:1.3% of people with no designation
14:
1612:
1556:1934 disestablishments in Germany
1541:Organizations established in 1894
1351:Imperial Germany, 1850–1918
1581:German nationalist organizations
510:Polish National-Democratic Party
280:German Anti-Semitic Organization
1586:Anti-Polish sentiment in Europe
1298:
1596:German Eastern Marches Society
1551:1894 establishments in Germany
887:
744:Representing the German Nation
734:
620:
407:
168:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
20:German Eastern Marches Society
1:
995:Bartłomiej Kozłowski (2005).
780:The Coming of the Third Reich
655:
571:Finally, after the advent of
527:
146:
99:Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg
1510:Richard Wonser Tims (1941).
489:
7:
1348:Edgar Feuchtwanger (2001).
1201:Erik Grimmer-Solem (2003).
586:
10:
1617:
1401:Keith Bullivant, op.cit.,
1071:Anna M. Cienciala (2004).
251:
86:and destruction of Polish
35:, also known in German as
1448:Richard Blanke, op.cit.,
1284:Press. pp. 352–355.
1117:Peter von Polenz (1999).
1058:Martin Kitchen, op.cit.,
953:"Nationalheld auf Rädern"
921:David Blackbourn (2003).
897:German History Since 1800
641:Eugen Kalkschmidt (ed.).
477:6.5% of other professions
186:, the predecessor of the
33:Deutscher Ostmarkenverein
1144:Jacob L. Talmon (1991).
866:Germany's Colonial Pasts
777:Richard J Evans (2004).
713:Germany, 1866–1945
613:
300:Province of West Prussia
1419:Richard Blanke (1993).
1314:T. Hunt Tooley (1997).
1235:Martin Kitchen (2006).
827:Press. pp. 58–67.
751:Press. pp. 47–48.
718:Oxford University Press
710:Gordon A Craig (1999).
360:. Its press organ, the
276:German Colonial Society
170:(namely the regions of
1514:. New York: AMS Press.
871:University of Nebraska
825:University of Michigan
741:Mary Fulbrook (2000).
485:Effects and after-life
437:and settlers, that is
266:. Among them were the
159:
143:
38:
32:
1354:. London: Routledge.
1104:Geoff Eley, op.cit.,
1001:Kalendarium Polska.pl
749:Manchester University
680:Alon Confino (1997).
667:Geoff Eley, op.cit.,
608:Anti-Polish sentiment
546:Post-war organisation
471:2.7% of army officers
447:Settlement Commission
427:Settlement Commission
402:Settlement Commission
182:) was annexed by the
154:
135:
1375:Peter Alter (1995).
1282:Princeton University
1081:University of Kansas
552:Deutsche Vereinigung
459:15.7% of businessmen
418:Prussian aristocracy
312:ancient feudal roots
192:Grand Duchy of Posen
164:Partitions of Poland
130:Bund Deutscher Osten
112:Initially formed in
1519:Adam Galos (1966).
817:Geoff Eley (1990).
465:10.7% of landowners
82:of Poles living in
66:after its founders
56:known acronymically
961:(in German) (26).
873:. pp. 79–90.
581:Invasion of Poland
579:during the German
556:German Association
272:German Navy League
263:nationale Verbände
184:Kingdom of Prussia
160:
1601:Province of Posen
568:Gustav Stresemann
518:Wojciech Korfanty
468:4.2% of clergymen
462:14.0% of teachers
456:17.6% of artisans
296:Province of Posen
268:Pan-German League
196:Otto von Bismarck
88:national identity
1608:
1524:
1515:
1497:
1496:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1462:Michael Burleigh
1458:
1452:
1450:pp.138–139
1446:
1437:
1436:
1416:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1345:
1332:
1331:
1311:
1305:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1268:
1253:
1252:
1232:
1219:
1218:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1171:
1162:
1161:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1114:
1108:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1083:. Archived from
1068:
1062:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1040:on March 3, 2006
1036:. Archived from
1025:
1016:
1015:
1013:
1012:
992:
977:
976:
974:
973:
948:
939:
938:
918:
912:
911:
891:
885:
884:
860:
839:
838:
814:
795:
794:
774:
763:
762:
738:
732:
731:
707:
698:
697:
677:
671:
665:
649:
648:
637:
631:
624:
474:0.7% of rentiers
41:
27:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1531:
1530:
1527:
1505:
1503:Further reading
1500:
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1417:
1408:
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969:
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739:
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728:
708:
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694:
678:
674:
666:
662:
658:
653:
652:
644:Bismarcks Reden
638:
634:
625:
621:
616:
589:
564:Weimar Republic
560:Minority Treaty
548:
530:
497:Polish Question
492:
487:
410:
371:Ostmarkenromane
366:Polish Question
258:pressure groups
254:
246:Leo von Caprivi
216:colonial empire
212:new world order
149:
144:
140:
138:
126:Weimar Republic
103:Leo von Caprivi
43:) was a German
23:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1604:
1603:
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1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
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1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1498:
1483:
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1438:
1431:
1406:
1403:pp.52–53
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1247:
1220:
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358:pressure group
324:propagandistic
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162:Following the
157:Greater Poland
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511:
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242:Germanization
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233:
232:German Empire
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76:von Tiedemann
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68:von Hansemann
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1089:. Retrieved
1085:the original
1076:
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1044:February 16,
1042:. Retrieved
1038:the original
1033:
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1005:the original
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577:Fifth column
573:Adolf Hitler
555:
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540:Mitteleuropa
531:
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506:nationalists
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443:organic work
439:middle class
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180:West Prussia
178:, the later
161:
136:
111:
94:modo vivendi
92:
63:
59:
47:, extremely
36:
19:
18:
1378:Nationalism
593:Kulturkampf
535:World War I
435:bourgeoisie
408:Social base
387:trade union
379:von Caprivi
362:Die Ostmark
223:Kulturkampf
204:imperialism
200:nationalism
122:World War I
49:nationalist
1535:Categories
1180:. Rodopi.
1091:2009-07-11
1011:2009-07-11
972:2006-05-24
716:. Oxford:
656:References
528:In Germany
431:Hakatisten
354:propaganda
349:versions.
282:, and the
208:chauvinism
147:Background
107:Wilhelmine
52:xenophobic
967:0044-2070
603:Ostflucht
583:of 1939.
490:In Poland
347:bilingual
319:Germandom
228:apartheid
72:Kennemann
25:‹See Tfd›
1464:(1997).
1274:(1982).
958:Die Zeit
587:See also
414:Junkers
308:Junkers
252:Society
84:Prussia
45:radical
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516:, and
383:German
343:Danzig
339:Polish
288:Poznań
206:, and
118:Berlin
60:Hakata
29:German
1106:p.VII
1060:p.130
614:Notes
292:Posen
176:Royal
114:Posen
109:era.
64:H-K-T
1472:ISBN
1427:ISBN
1383:ISBN
1356:ISBN
1322:ISBN
1286:ISBN
1243:ISBN
1209:ISBN
1182:ISBN
1152:ISBN
1125:ISBN
1046:2006
963:ISSN
929:ISBN
902:ISBN
875:ISBN
829:ISBN
785:ISBN
753:ISBN
722:ISBN
688:ISBN
669:p.43
356:and
298:and
174:and
101:and
74:and
512:of
62:or
58:as
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