189:
348:, the Bishop of Worcester after Cantilupe. Richard of Haldingham, who died in 1278, may have been a senior relative of de Bello, and appears to be credited on the map as the designer (who "made and laid it out"). Richard de Bello's career from the later 1280 and 90s is linked to Swinefield's patronage in Lincoln, where Swinefield was briefly treasurer. Finally, of course, in creating the map for the Cantilupe cult, it was a sign of Swinefield's gratitude to his benefactor. However, these possible links remain speculative, and it is equally possible that Richard of Haldingham and Swinefield knew each other directly, even assuming that the Haldingham that died in 1278 was the original drafter identified on the map.
440:, near red coloured seas and as already noted, is close to another devil. The red and yellow colour combination is well known from other derogatory depictions of Jews, and can be read as reinforcing negative stereotypes of Jews. A coffin with a Christian cross placed next to Moses may represent Joseph's bones being taken back to Israel, but could also represent the contemporary death of the Old Law, God's rejection of the Jews, and the replacement of the Mosaic law by the Christian message. It may recall Jesus' comparison in Matthew 23.27 of the scribes and Pharisees to whitened tombs. Lastly, Moses is placed in proximity to dragons patrolling the entrance to hell, through a diagonal alignment.
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stone supports (corbels) for the display. This would align with the stained glass windows above. The supports match the length of the opened triptych panels at about 3 meters wide, with a small overhang. He contends that the triptych would have fitted neatly, aligning with other features and presenting the map's key features at an appropriate height, with
Jerusalem at 129 cm and the Last Judgement at 215 cm. There are however potential objections to this theory; the dimensions cited by Terkla may underestimate the size of the triptych, and in any case, it would be very unusual for a decorative object to be placed so near a shrine.
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reach heaven. In general, women were associated with the related sins of vanity, gluttony, and avarice. Religious teachings recognised the necessity of marriage and reproductive sex, but emphasised virginity as the preferable state. The four women who stand around the tower were those depicted in contemporary
Christian morality as having specific failings related to pride. The women and female figures together depict pride, disobedience and sexual misconduct, fulfilling the map's didactic role, in reinforcing "misogynisitic ideologies" and the social control of women.
418:, but at a minimum places the Jews in a position of mocking Christians. The four men labelled "Judaei" worshipping the devil hold a blank scroll, a symbol used to denote the association of Jews with scrolls containing the Word of God, yet in the view of Christians, having an inability to understand and accept it. Overall, the Golden Calf scene, by labelling Israelites as "Jews", associating them with the mockery of Christians and with conceptions of Muslims or Saracens of the period through the "Mahun" figure, connects the Exodus story with contemporary Jews.
456:. The phoenix symbolised Christ's resurrection, as it emerges intact from fire after three days; in the bestiaries, this was said to echo the prophecy of Jesus that he had the power to lay his life down and take it up again, which had angered the Jews. After three loops representing forty years of travel each, the path encounters the disobedient wife of Lot, on the point of being turned into a pillar of salt for looking back onto the city of Sodom. Here also stands a marsok, with different kinds of feet, which may be linked to the shape changing
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literate, or less so, would help ensure those looking at the map were able to interpret the figures in the correct manner. Guides could have included the cathedral canons, for example. The map itself shows some evidence that it was used this way, for instance, Hereford has nearly disappeared from it, presumably from repeated touching; and one of the map's main inscriptions states: "Let all who have this history โ or who shall hear, or read, or see it โ pray to Jesus in his divinity."
460:, itself associated in bestiaries with Jews as an unclean, sex-changing animal. Positioned between the Tower of Babel and Lot's wife, the marsok may also function to connect the Exodus story to the sin of pride. The destination of the Exodus path is Jericho, positioned just above the crucified Christ, whose hand points back to the Jews worshipping the Golden Calf, linking the crucifixion to those deemed responsible in medieval theology.
22:
500:, where she bares her breasts in an act of supplication. Other figures include a handmaiden presenting Mary with a crown, and a siren near Jerusalem bearing a mirror. The wife of Lot gazes towards Sodom and Gomorrah, and Noah's wife stands beside him. There are also a prominent female Epiphagus, a Psyllian, and a further twenty other non-human females.
634:
383:), mostly relating to depictions of the Exodus. These are unusual, not least as they would normally be identified as historical "Israelites" or similar formulations rather than by the contemporary term "Jews". The Exodus cycle is particularly prominent, indicating unusual significance, as it is not found on other similar medieval religious maps.
961:(horned) in the Vulgate Bible, but this itself may not have been a neutral mistake. There is also evidence of association of Jews with devils in medieval sermons, and in any case, Strickland argues, the audience would be likely to associate horns with devilry. Stephen Bertman makes similar points regarding medieval depictions of a horned Moses.
296:, a drawing of which is held by the British Library. The left panel depicted the angel Gabriel, and the right the Virgin annunciate. This gives the map particular associations with the cult of the Virgin Mary, which was very prominent in Christian worship at the time, and highly developed at Hereford.
359:
because the city of
Lincoln was drawn in considerable detail and was represented by a cathedral (accurately) located on a hill near a river. Hereford, on the other hand, was represented only by a cathedral, a seeming afterthought drawn by a different hand when compared with other features of the map.
129:
The map would have functioned as an object to show people visiting
Cantilupe's cult, and guides would have described and helped visitors to understand the content. The idea of looking, reading and hearing the stories is mentioned on the map itself. There would not have always been single, fixed ideas
503:
The four most prominent women are positioned around the Tower of Babel, a symbol of the sin of pride, viewed in the
Christian morality of the time as the root of all evil, and also the sin most closely associated with women. The Tower of Babel symbolised pride as God cast it down for attempting to
331:
In either case, the map within its triptych would have formed a central focus for pilgrims seeking divine intervention from
Cantilupe. The map would be expected to reflect central concerns and beliefs or teachings of Cantilupe. His views depicted on the map may include his aversion to Jews and his
562:
Various animals not well known to
Europeans at the time, such as elephants and camels, are depicted. Elephants were shown to be very practical beasts of war, as they were strong enough to transport siege equipment across great distances, as well as being capable of supporting platforms from which
327:
Another theory from Thomas de
Wesselow places the triptych on another wall on the south aisle of the choir adjacent to de Cantilupe's tomb. This wall is recorded as having metal hooks which could have acted as supports for the triptych. Aligned wooden fittings on the back of the surviving central
323:
Dan Terkla places the map in the north transept's east wall next to de
Cantilupe's shrine. Among the evidence he cites are masonry remains that can be observed at the proposed site of the triptych, including a set of eight square stone inserts, placed to block holes potentially used for wooden or
488:
Strickland notes that the map conveys a "pervasive masculinity: male ecclesiastical headgear, flat chests, beards, tonsures, testicles, and penises abound", and the "entire visual field is enframed, patrolled, and occupied by males". She contrasts this with the female figures, which she believes
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There is possible evidence of female patronage contributing to the map's production, in the single well-dressed, arisocratic female figure among the elect drawn on the top left handside of the map, and in the drawing of the modestly dressed and therefore piously presented handmaiden offering the
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The map needs therefore to be understood as an object used within that cult, as a didactic and religious object, that would have been looked at by an international audience, some of whom would be able to read the Latin or French inscriptions. It is likely that guides, whether highly educated and
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perspective, but more recent approaches have attempted to see the map as a work of art, that conveys meanings through symbolism and associations. Interpretations of the
Hereford Mappa Mundi are difficult, because the original context and purpose are lost. However, it is known that it formed the
378:
Strickland has attempted to interpret the map's images of medieval Jewry and associated bible stories to understand what it may have been trying to convey about Jews and Judaism. She notes that this was a particular concern in England, where the Jews were expelled in 1290, and also of Hereford
421:
The "blank scroll" of the Golden Calf scene also connects with the nearby depiction of Moses receiving the Ten Commandments, directly above. This can be read as the Jews receiving the law from God, and then rejecting it, transforming the Exodus story from that of redemption to rejection and
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depict aspects of the prevailing misogynistic depiction of women as fundamentally proud, disobedient and lustful. The Virgin Mary stands in medieval thinking as the role model for women, as virginal and free from sin, and therefore complements rather than subverts this depiction.
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The Biblical Exodus can be read as a parallel for the near contemporary 1290 expulsion of the Jews from England. The itinerary has beasts and objects placed near it which may reinforce negative portrayals of Jews. At the start of the Exodus, at Ramasses, a
149:. However, the side panels of the original triptych were lost, and the map was detached from its wooden frame panel. The cathedral proposed to sell the map in 1988, but fundraising kept the map from sale, and it was moved to a dedicated building in 1996.
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in a circle at the edge of the world (1). Great Britain is drawn at the northwestern border (bottom left, 22 and 23). Curiously, the labels for Africa and Europe are reversed, with Europe scribed in red and gold as "Africa" and vice versa. The
311:. This is partly based on examination of features of the cathedral and conjecture about the original placement of the triptych. There is however disagreement about the timing of its installation, whether shortly before or somewhat after 1290.
516:, it measures 158 cm by 133 cm, some 52 in (130 cm) in diameter and is the largest medieval map known still to exist. The writing is in black ink, with additional red and gold, and blue or green for water (with the
480:, or "accursed sons of Cain". These Jewish figures are a frequent depiction on medieval maps, and derived from the Alexander cycle myth. They are in the myth fated to fight Christendom at the end of time.
224:
opened in 1996. An open-access high-resolution digital image of the map with more than 1,000 place and name annotations is included among the thirteen medieval maps of the world edited in the
2202:: Digital Editions of Early Medieval Maps of the World, eds. Martin Foys, Heather Wacha, et al. (Philadelphia, PA: Schoenberg Institute of Manuscript Studies, 2020). DOI: 10.21231/ef21-ev82.
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narrative, conflating the Exodus of the Bible with the contemporary expulsion, and as outlined below, setting out why Christians should believe that Jews are deserving of such punishment.
79:, England. The map was created as an intricate work of art rather than as a navigational tool. Sources for the information presented on the map include the Alexander tradition, medieval
373:
659:, surrounded by a wall and a ring of fire. During World War II this was printed in Japanese textbooks since Paradise appears to be roughly in the location of Japan.
452:
stand beside the start of the route. The yale's horns echo those of Moses. The next beast encountered on the path is near the Jews worshipping the Golden Calf is a
2073:
Driver, Christopher (19 November 1988). "World time forgot: the 13th-century world map up for sale is not the only neglected treasure of Hereford Cathedral".
168:
the map had been laid beneath the floor of Bishop Audley's Chantry, where it remained secreted for some time. In 1855 it was cleaned and repaired at the
256:(erroneously for considerable time called the Henry of Mainz map). It is not a literal map, and does not conform to geographical knowledge of the time.
344:
The production of the map is likely to have involved the patronage of up to four men, Thomas de Cantilupe, Richard of Haldingham, Richard de Bello and
410:", a name for imaginary idols believed to be worshipped by Muslims, building an association with figures elsewhere on the map negatively representing
164:
The Hereford Mappa Mundi hung, with little regard, for many years on a wall of a choir aisle in the cathedral. During the troubled times of the
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Some of the images are clearly derogatory and anti-semitic. For instance, within the Exodus cycle, a prominent scene depicts the worship of the
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2152:
A series of close-up photographs of the entire map, along with annotated transcriptions and English translations of all the text thereon.
520:(8) coloured red). It depicts 420 towns, 15 Biblical events, 33 animals and plants, 32 people, and five scenes from classical mythology.
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rows of archers were able to stand and fire, or so envisioned the medieval English cartographers. Mythical beasts such as the legendary
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However, more recent research on the origin of the wood in the frame suggests it may in fact have been created in or around Hereford.
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267:, which is cited on the map. The map also draws on the Alexander myths, bestiaries and commonly accepted ideas of Monstrous Races.
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cathedral and its leadership, who had been in conflict with the local Jewish population. The map has several depictions of Jews (
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414:. The scene also depicts Christian crosses as present on the altar. This arguably moves the image into a depiction of
126:. Cantilupe was known for his dislike of Jews and was regarded as misogynistic even by the standards of his own time.
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attached to the images, which would be interpreted symbolically, and through juxtaposition and proximity. Text in
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and members of the public kept the map in Hereford and allowed the construction of a new library designed by Sir
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caused the Dean and Chapter to propose selling the mappa mundi. After much controversy, large donations from the
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map still known to exist, depicting the known world. It is a religious rather than literal depiction, featuring
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756:(?), or possibly an allusion to the equatorial ocean; far outside: a land of the monstrous races, possibly the
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Although the evidence is circumstantial, modern scholarship links the map with the promotion of the cult of
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406:. However, the Golden Calf is depicted as a devil defacating coins onto its altar. The devil is labelled "
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1681:
Kline, Naomi Reed (2006). "Alexander Interpreted on the Hereford Mappamundi". In Harvey, P.D.A. (ed.).
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As noted, it does not correspond to the geographical knowledge of the 14th century. For example, the
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of the Cathedral and of All Saints' Church. The new Library Building in the south east corner of the
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555:'s having reported it to be landlocked in 1255, several decades before the map's creation; see also
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are depicted on the map. A number of monsters and inhuman races are present. One such race is the
602:), so that the circular representation remained adequate. The long river on the far right is the
165:
2101:
1991:
Woodward, David (December 1985). "Reality, Symbolism, Time, and Space in Medieval World Maps".
229:
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2121:
425:
2172:
2048:
1736:
Kupfer, Marcia (2019). "The Hereford Map (c. 1300)". In Terkla, Dan; Mellea, Nick (eds.).
590:, and thus the circular representation may well be considered a conventional attempt at a
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606:(12), and the T shape is established by the Mediterranean Sea (19-21-25) and the rivers
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2163:"Explore the Hereford Mappa Mundi" at the official dedicated website launched in 2014
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Some twenty figures that represent women, of which the most important represents the
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would help guides and international visitors to understand something of its meaning.
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1784 sketch of the triptych containing the Hereford Mappa Mundi, showing side panels
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locomotive No.31405 was named "Mappa Mundi" at a ceremony at the Hereford Rail Day.
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There is an emerging consensus that the map played a role in promoting the cult of
173:
1815:
1800:"The Tour Guide in the Middle Ages: Guide Culture and the Mediation of Public Art"
1595:
Bertman, Stephen (2009). "The Antisemitic Origin of Michelangelo's Horned Moses".
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period. By the 19th century, it was in need of repair, and it was repaired at the
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The map is based on traditional accounts and earlier maps such as the one of the
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Harvey, P. D. A. (2000). "Mappa Mundi". In Aylmer, Gerald; Tiller, John (eds.).
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594:: in spite of the acceptance of a spherical Earth, only the known parts of the
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It was long believed that the mappa mundi was created, not in Hereford, but in
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156:, was destroyed by Allied bombing in 1943, though photographs of it survive.
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History of the Jews in England (1066โ1290) ยง Edward I and the Expulsion
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A Companion to English Mappaemundi of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries
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176:, for safety reasons, the mappa mundi and other valuable manuscripts from
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America Magica: When Renaissance Europe Thought It Had Conquered Paradise
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The Moses figure can also be interpreted negatively. He is depicted with
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52:
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26:
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Medieval Geography: An Essay in Illustration of the Hereford Mappa Mundi
1823:
1774:
Mittman, A. S. (2018). "England is the World and the World is England".
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571:, a headless tribe whose facial features were situated on their chests.
2012:
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551:(5) connects to the encircling ocean (upper left). This is in spite of
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115:
80:
1933:
1951:
Imago Mundi: The International Journal for the History of Cartography
858:("Rome, the head of the world, holds the reins of the round globe").
837:
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67:. Dating from ca. 1300, the map is drawn in a form deriving from the
30:
2199:
1881:
1799:
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Art and Optics in the Hereford Map: An English Mappa Mundi, c. 1300
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The "T and O" shape does not imply that its creators believed in a
449:
411:
308:
293:
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views of women as inherently sinful, including figures such as the
76:
1949:
Terkla, Dan (2004). "The Original Placement of the Hereford Map".
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1645:
Mapping Time and Space: How Medieval Mapmakers Viewed Their World
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The "horned" aspect could be due to a mistranslation of Moses as
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771:
713:
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672:
524:
517:
407:
395:
264:
111:
99:
21:
1970:
Wesselow, Thomas de (2013). "Locating the Hereford Mappamundi".
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drawn in the centre of the circle; east is on top, showing the
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of the time, the map is a biblically inspired map which shows
1683:
The Hereford World Map: Medieval World Maps and their Context
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3 โ The fabulous island of Taphana, sometimes interpreted as
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being turned into a pillar of salt for gazing at the city of
84:
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were kept elsewhere and returned to the collection in 1946.
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Saracens, demons, and Jews: making monsters in Medieval art
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1852:"Edward I, Exodus, and England on the Hereford World Map"
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misogyny. In Debra Strickland's view, the map reflects a
183:
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and the idea was never entirely forgotten even in the
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were believed to be inhabitable by human beings (see
259:
Among the most important sources for the map are the
1528:
901:
617:, which then appeared on many other maps. including
613:
It is the earliest known map to depict the mythical
328:
section of the triptych give credence to this view.
1922:
Different Visions: New Perspectives on Medieval Art
1755:Magasich-Airola, Jorge; de Beer, Jean-Marc (2007).
1740:. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer. pp. 226โ52.
1377:
1311:
1251:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1993:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
2220:
2168:"The Mappa Mundi" at the Hereford Cathedral site
2062:"Discover the Last Chained Libraries in England"
993:
1915:"The female presence on the Hereford World Map"
1882:"Otherness on the Hereford World Map (c. 1300)"
1692:Maps of Medieval Thought: The Hereford Paradigm
1263:
1188:
318:
94:, and with a justification of the expulsion of
83:and legends of monstrous races, as well as the
1517:
2120:
1675:(2nd ed.). Hereford: Hereford Cathedral.
1656:. London: Hambledon Press. pp. 557โ562.
270:
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978:
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523:Utilizing the contemporary medieval styled
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102:. Potentially antisemitic images include a
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856:Roma caput mundi tenet orbis frena rotundi
496:, positioned at the top of the map at the
2094:
1835:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
1500:
1046:
975:
854:, honoured by a popular Latin hexameter;
476:, is a description of the cannibalism of
261:Historiarum adversum paganos libri septem
16:Map of the known world dating from c.1300
2059:
2020:
1990:
1969:
1555:
1512:
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540:is shown at the bottom center, with the
483:
468:There are a total of four references to
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385:
274:
187:
106:and a depiction of Jews worshipping the
20:
2173:"The Hereford Mappamundi" by J. Siebold
2140:. Terrarum Orbis 1. Turnhout: Brepols.
2135:
2081:
1794:
1773:
1594:
1410:
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1246:
472:. At the top left of the map, near the
464:Jews depicted in the Gog and Magog myth
2221:
2206:The Mapping Mandeville Digital Project
2072:
2029:"Cathedral lays claim to medieval map"
1948:
1735:
1716:
1670:
1651:
1603:(4). Purdue University Press: 95โ106.
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1482:
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1087:
1075:
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796:16 โ Oversized delta of the Nile with
184:Threatened sale and new public display
2215:plotted onto the Hereford Mappa Mundi
2046:
1886:IKON: Journal of Iconographic Studies
1689:
1680:
1642:
1628:. White Star Publishers. p. 20.
1623:
1574:
1534:
1488:
999:
988:
637:Locations on the Hereford mappa mundi
141:The map suffered neglect in the post-
114:. The map also seems to reflect very
2264:Tourist attractions in Herefordshire
1549:
1037:
1035:
283:The map has been interpreted from a
263:(Seven Books against the Pagans) of
2060:Connelly, Erin (19 November 2019).
2026:
1673:Mappa Mundi: The Hereford World Map
1479:
1269:
235:
200:In 1988, a financial crisis in the
13:
2194:Art Detective Podcast, 22 Mar 2017
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2005:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1985.tb00090.x
1524:Magasich-Airola & de Beer 2007
244:codex, and is very similar to the
14:
2280:
2156:
2095:Wellesley, Mary (21 April 2022).
1913:Strickland, Debra Higgs (2022b).
1880:Strickland, Debra Higgs (2022a).
1032:
1850:Strickland, Debra Higgs (2018).
1831:Strickland, Debra Higgs (2003).
918:
904:
645:Detail showing the British Isles
544:marking its most western point.
1694:(paperback ed.). Boydell.
1428:
1416:
1341:
1275:
1172:
1148:
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951:
206:National Heritage Memorial Fund
1759:(2nd ed.). Anthem Press.
1081:
1069:
1057:
868:, opposing Rome, right of it.
813:, with his skis and ski pole.
649:0 โ At the centre of the map:
303:, who was later accepted as a
1:
1816:10.1080/00043079.2017.1367910
1654:Hereford Cathedral: a History
968:
364:Presentation of Jews and the
196:, where the map is now housed
2259:Memory of the World Register
1984:10.1080/03085694.2013.784555
628:
580:spherical shape of the Earth
319:Placement and Cantilupe cult
71:pattern. It is displayed at
7:
2208:, ed. John Wyatt Greenlee,
2198:Digital Facsimile edition:
1963:10.1080/0308569042000238064
1690:Kline, Naomi Reed (2003) .
897:
512:Drawn on a single sheet of
507:
432:on the Hereford Mappa Mundi
10:
2285:
2249:Historic maps of the world
2136:Westrem, Scott D. (2001).
2124:; Phillott, H. W. (1873).
2084:"The Hereford Mappa Mundi"
1556:Alington, Gabriel (1997).
1544:
371:
271:Interpretation and purpose
178:Hereford Cathedral Library
152:A larger mappa mundi, the
29:, a map of the world with
2132:An extensive early study.
1957:(2). Routledge: 131โ151.
1788:10.1057/s41280-017-0067-x
1721:. Yale University Press.
1671:Harvey, P. D. A. (2010).
1362:, pp. 100, 102, 105.
653:, above it: the crucifix.
584:ancient Greeks and Romans
582:was already known to the
216:to house the map and the
2239:History of Herefordshire
1624:Brown, Kevin J. (2017).
1575:Ayabe, Munehiko (2007).
1558:The Hereford Mappa Mundi
944:
340:Authorship and patronage
160:Post-Reformation history
2047:Black, Annetta (2010).
1898:10.1484/J.IKON.5.132348
1717:Kupfer, Marcia (2016).
2178:8 October 2011 at the
2102:London Review of Books
2049:"Hereford Mappa Mundi"
1647:. The British Library.
1643:Edson, Evelyn (1997).
646:
638:
433:
399:
280:
197:
46:
34:
2082:Johnson, Ben (2023).
2021:News and web articles
1626:Maps Through the Ages
1129:, pp. 424, 463,
750:with the River Nile.
644:
636:
484:Presentation of women
428:
390:Jews worshipping the
389:
352:Virgin Mary a crown.
278:
230:British Rail Class 31
191:
24:
610:(13) and Nile (16).
542:Straits of Gibraltar
39:Hereford Mappa Mundi
2229:Antisemitism in art
2210:The Travels of Sir
2130:. London: Stanford.
2027:BBC (28 May 2015).
1117:, pp. 139โ140.
892:Pillars of Hercules
888:Strait of Gibraltar
806:17 โ The legendary
596:Northern Hemisphere
478:fili caim maledicti
301:Thomas de Cantilupe
292:central panel of a
202:Diocese of Hereford
192:The new library at
92:Thomas de Cantilupe
1685:. British Library.
1609:10.1353/sho.0.0393
1185:, pp. 189โ198
1181:, pp. 32โ33,
1157:, pp. 141โ145
1133:, pp. 131โ151
736:, coming from the
730:Sodom and Gomorrah
716:(painted in red).
691:, and the land of
647:
639:
553:William of Rubruck
434:
400:
398:, or Saracen devil
346:Richard Swinefield
281:
198:
194:Hereford Cathedral
73:Hereford Cathedral
35:
2269:13th-century maps
1934:10.61302/LZBT9907
1747:978-1-78327-422-2
1577:ใ็ฅใใใใๅคไปฃๆฅๆฌใญใชในใไผ่ชฌใ
1550:Secondary sources
1413:, pp. 20โ23.
1401:, p. 437-44.
1350:, pp. 432โ34
1338:, pp. 430โ31
1213:, p. 139-40.
1169:, pp. check.
784:; left of it the
615:St Brendan's Isle
538:Mediterranean Sea
250:Psalter world map
242:Beatus of Liรฉbana
228:project. In 1991
218:chained libraries
214:William Whitfield
110:in the form of a
51:) is the largest
2276:
2244:1280s in England
2151:
2138:The Hereford Map
2131:
2110:
2091:
2078:
2069:
2056:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2016:
1987:
1966:
1945:
1919:
1909:
1876:
1856:
1846:
1827:
1791:
1770:
1751:
1732:
1713:
1686:
1676:
1667:
1648:
1639:
1620:
1590:
1571:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1521:
1515:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1477:
1474:Strickland 2022b
1471:
1465:
1462:Strickland 2022b
1459:
1450:
1447:Strickland 2022b
1444:
1438:
1435:Strickland 2022b
1432:
1426:
1423:Strickland 2022b
1420:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1375:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1324:
1318:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1244:
1238:
1237:, pp. 32โ4.
1235:Strickland 2022b
1232:
1226:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1197:
1186:
1176:
1170:
1164:
1158:
1152:
1146:
1143:Strickland 2022b
1140:
1134:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1103:Strickland 2022b
1100:
1091:
1090:, pp. 228โ9
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1050:
1044:
1039:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1015:Strickland 2022b
1012:
1003:
997:
991:
986:
962:
955:
928:
923:
922:
914:
909:
908:
907:
882:Balearic Islands
474:Day of Judgement
416:host desecration
236:Original sources
174:Second World War
63:and the path to
2284:
2283:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2219:
2218:
2212:John Mandeville
2190:Peter Frankopan
2180:Wayback Machine
2159:
2148:
2117:
2115:Further reading
2066:Europe Up Close
2037:
2035:
2023:
1917:
1854:
1843:
1796:Rudolph, Conrad
1767:
1748:
1729:
1702:
1664:
1636:
1587:
1568:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1541:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1518:
1511:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1487:
1480:
1476:, pp. 6โ7.
1472:
1468:
1460:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1409:
1405:
1399:Strickland 2018
1397:
1393:
1387:Strickland 2018
1385:
1378:
1372:Strickland 2018
1370:
1366:
1358:
1354:
1348:Strickland 2018
1346:
1342:
1336:Strickland 2018
1334:
1327:
1321:Strickland 2018
1319:
1312:
1306:Strickland 2003
1304:
1300:
1292:
1288:
1282:Strickland 2018
1280:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1221:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1200:Strickland 2018
1198:
1189:
1177:
1173:
1165:
1161:
1153:
1149:
1145:, pp. 6โ8.
1141:
1137:
1127:Strickland 2018
1125:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1101:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1064:Strickland 2018
1062:
1058:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1033:
1027:Strickland 2018
1025:
1021:
1013:
1006:
998:
994:
987:
976:
971:
966:
965:
956:
952:
947:
934:Early world map
924:
917:
910:
905:
903:
900:
885:
879:
877:
875:
869:
859:
841:
828:19 โ Misplaced
827:
814:
805:
795:
789:
779:
761:
751:
745:
723:
717:
711:
705:
695:
686:
676:
666:
660:
654:
631:
510:
486:
466:
394:presented as a
376:
370:
342:
321:
273:
238:
222:cathedral close
186:
162:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2282:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2217:
2216:
2203:
2196:
2186:Janina Ramirez
2184:Discussion by
2182:
2170:
2165:
2158:
2157:External links
2155:
2154:
2153:
2146:
2133:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2092:
2079:
2070:
2057:
2044:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2017:
1999:(4): 517โ519.
1988:
1978:(2): 180โ206.
1967:
1946:
1910:
1877:
1873:10.1086/696540
1847:
1841:
1828:
1792:
1771:
1766:978-1843312925
1765:
1752:
1746:
1733:
1728:978-0300220339
1727:
1714:
1700:
1687:
1678:
1668:
1662:
1649:
1640:
1634:
1621:
1592:
1586:978-4054035812
1585:
1572:
1566:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1537:, p. 186.
1527:
1516:
1505:
1501:Wellesley 2022
1493:
1478:
1466:
1451:
1439:
1427:
1415:
1403:
1391:
1376:
1374:, p. 436.
1364:
1352:
1340:
1325:
1310:
1308:, p. 166.
1298:
1296:, p. 196.
1286:
1274:
1262:
1250:
1239:
1227:
1225:, p. 560.
1215:
1203:
1187:
1171:
1159:
1147:
1135:
1119:
1107:
1092:
1080:
1068:
1056:
1045:
1031:
1029:, p. 444.
1019:
1004:
992:
973:
972:
970:
967:
964:
963:
949:
948:
946:
943:
942:
941:
936:
930:
929:
915:
899:
896:
878:24 โ Ireland.
876:23 โ England.
782:Constantinople
738:Sea of Galilee
665:and its delta.
630:
627:
557:Portolan chart
533:Garden of Eden
509:
506:
498:Last Judgement
485:
482:
465:
462:
369:
362:
341:
338:
334:post-Expulsion
320:
317:
272:
269:
237:
234:
185:
182:
170:British Museum
161:
158:
147:British Museum
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2281:
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2207:
2204:
2201:
2200:Virtual Mappa
2197:
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2171:
2169:
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2147:2-503-51056-6
2143:
2139:
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2103:
2098:
2097:"In Hereford"
2093:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2053:Atlas Obscura
2050:
2045:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2024:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
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1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1867:(2): 420โ69.
1866:
1862:
1861:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
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1646:
1641:
1637:
1635:9788854416154
1631:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1588:
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1578:
1573:
1569:
1567:9780852443552
1563:
1560:. Gracewing.
1559:
1554:
1553:
1536:
1531:
1525:
1520:
1514:
1513:Woodward 1985
1509:
1502:
1497:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1475:
1470:
1463:
1458:
1456:
1448:
1443:
1436:
1431:
1424:
1419:
1412:
1407:
1400:
1395:
1389:, p. 437
1388:
1383:
1381:
1373:
1368:
1361:
1356:
1349:
1344:
1337:
1332:
1330:
1323:, p. 431
1322:
1317:
1315:
1307:
1302:
1295:
1294:Wesselow 2013
1290:
1284:, p. 429
1283:
1278:
1271:
1266:
1259:
1254:
1248:
1243:
1236:
1231:
1224:
1219:
1212:
1207:
1201:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1184:
1183:Wesselow 2013
1180:
1175:
1168:
1167:Wesselow 2013
1163:
1156:
1151:
1144:
1139:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1116:
1111:
1104:
1099:
1097:
1089:
1084:
1077:
1072:
1066:, p. 423
1065:
1060:
1054:
1049:
1043:
1042:Alington 1997
1038:
1036:
1028:
1023:
1017:, p. 32.
1016:
1011:
1009:
1001:
996:
990:
985:
983:
981:
979:
974:
960:
954:
950:
940:
939:Virtual Mappa
937:
935:
932:
931:
927:
921:
916:
913:
902:
895:
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883:
873:
867:
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839:
835:
831:
826:
823:, Athens and
822:
821:Mount Olympus
818:
812:
809:
803:
799:
793:
787:
783:
777:
776:Golden Fleece
774:; above: the
773:
769:
765:
759:
755:
749:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
721:
715:
709:
703:
699:
694:
693:Gog and Magog
690:
684:
680:
674:
670:
664:
658:
652:
643:
635:
626:
624:
620:
619:Martin Behaim
616:
611:
609:
605:
601:
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581:
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481:
479:
475:
471:
470:Gog and Magog
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431:
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297:
295:
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285:topographical
277:
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251:
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243:
233:
231:
227:
226:Virtual Mappa
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
195:
190:
181:
179:
175:
172:. During the
171:
167:
157:
155:
150:
148:
144:
139:
137:
133:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
112:Saracen devil
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
88:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
49:
44:
40:
33:at its centre
32:
28:
25:The Hereford
23:
19:
2209:
2137:
2126:
2122:Bevan, W. L.
2106:
2100:
2087:
2075:The Guardian
2074:
2065:
2052:
2036:. Retrieved
2032:
1996:
1992:
1975:
1971:
1954:
1950:
1925:
1921:
1889:
1885:
1864:
1858:
1832:
1810:(1): 36โ67.
1807:
1804:Art Bulletin
1803:
1782:(1): 15โ29.
1779:
1776:Postmedieval
1775:
1756:
1737:
1718:
1691:
1682:
1672:
1653:
1644:
1625:
1600:
1596:
1576:
1557:
1530:
1519:
1508:
1496:
1491:, p. 20
1469:
1449:, p. 6.
1442:
1430:
1418:
1411:Mittman 2018
1406:
1394:
1367:
1360:Bertman 2009
1355:
1343:
1301:
1289:
1277:
1265:
1260:, p. ?.
1253:
1247:Johnson 2023
1242:
1230:
1218:
1206:
1174:
1162:
1150:
1138:
1122:
1110:
1105:, p. 9.
1083:
1078:, p. 33
1071:
1059:
1048:
1022:
995:
958:
953:
926:World portal
855:
844:Adriatic Sea
836:'s circular
804:lighthouse.
766:with rivers
734:River Jordan
708:Persian Gulf
648:
612:
573:
561:
546:
522:
511:
502:
491:
487:
477:
467:
442:
438:yellow horns
435:
430:Horned Moses
420:
401:
380:
377:
365:
354:
350:
343:
330:
326:
322:
313:
298:
282:
260:
258:
239:
199:
166:Commonwealth
163:
151:
140:
128:
104:horned Moses
89:
38:
36:
18:
2254:1280s works
2088:Historic UK
1972:Imago Mundi
1928:(8): 1โ57.
1464:, p. 5
1437:, p. 4
1425:, p. 3
1258:Harvey 2010
1223:Harvey 2000
1211:Terkla 2004
1179:Harvey 2010
1155:Terkla 2004
1131:Terkla 2004
1115:Terkla 2004
1088:Kupfer 2019
1076:Harvey 2010
1053:Driver 1988
912:Maps portal
732:, with the
689:Caspian Sea
677:4 โ Rivers
588:Middle Ages
549:Caspian Sea
494:Virgin Mary
422:damnation.
404:Golden Calf
392:Golden Calf
289:encylopedic
246:Ebstorf Map
154:Ebstorf Map
143:Reformation
120:wife of Lot
116:patriarchal
108:Golden Calf
48:mappa mundi
27:mappa mundi
2223:Categories
1842:0691057192
1701:0851159370
1663:1852851945
1591:. (็ถพ้จ ๅฎๅฝฆ)
1535:Ayabe 2007
1489:Brown 2017
1000:Black 2010
989:Edson 1997
969:References
798:Alexandria
792:Aegean Sea
788:'s delta.
754:River Nile
742:Lot's wife
720:Noah's Ark
604:River Nile
592:projection
576:flat Earth
372:See also:
254:Sawley map
252:, and the
210:Paul Getty
81:bestiaries
2038:8 January
1942:1935-5009
1906:1846-8551
1892:: 19โ28.
1710:22373026M
886:26 โ The
880:25 โ The
842:20 โ The
838:labyrinth
832:with the
808:Norwegian
790:15 โ The
762:13 โ The
758:Antipodes
752:12 โ The
740:; above:
724:10 โ The
702:Euphrates
669:Sri Lanka
651:Jerusalem
629:Locations
625:of 1492.
600:antipodes
565:monoceros
529:Jerusalem
368:itinerary
65:salvation
31:Jerusalem
2234:Hereford
2176:Archived
2033:BBC News
1860:Speculum
1824:44973273
1798:(2018).
1617:42944790
1270:BBC 2015
898:See also
872:Scotland
866:Carthage
834:Minotaur
764:Azov Sea
726:Dead Sea
712:8 โ The
706:7 โ The
700:and the
687:5 โ The
661:2 โ The
657:Paradise
623:Erdapfel
569:Blemmyes
508:Contents
450:mandrake
412:Saracens
309:Holy See
294:triptych
77:Hereford
53:medieval
2013:2563109
1545:Sources
959:cornuta
825:Corinth
811:Gansmir
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