313:
352:
3646:
3534:
2736:
2692:
2643:
377:
328:
3942:
Mähl, S. (2012). Low German texts from late medieval Sweden. In L. Elmevik and E. H. Jahr (eds), Contact between Low German and
Scandinavian in the Late Middle Ages: 25 Years of Research, Acta Academiae Regiae Gustavi Adolphi, 121. Uppsala: Kungl. Gustav Adolfs Akademien för svensk folkkultur. 113–22
2244:
was a fricative. Its exact articulation probably differed by dialect. Broadly, there seem to have been dialects that distinguished a voiced palatal and a voiced velar , depending on surrounding vowels (: word-initially before front vowels, word-internally after front vowels; in those positions, but
1259:
It has to be noted that it is not rare to find the same word in MLG affected by one of the following phonological processes in one text and unaffected by it in another text because the lack of a written standard, the dialectal variation and ongoing linguistic change during the Middle Low German (MLG)
4014:
Wenn Aken, Dessau, Köthen, Wittenberg, Walkenried, Eisleben, Merseburg, Halle mit ihren
Umgebungen heute mitteldeutsche Mundarten haben, so ist das erst das Ergebnis einer großen sprachlichen Umlagerung, sie haben mit ihrer niederdeutschen Vergangenheit gebrochen. Aber ganz können sie sie nicht
989:
Beginning in the 15th century, Middle Low German fell out of favour compared to Early Modern High German, which was first used by elites as a written and, later, a spoken language. Reasons for this loss of prestige include the decline of the
Hanseatic League, followed by political heteronomy of
2775:
Lasch distinguished the following large dialect groups, emphasising that she based it strictly on the orthography, which may often omit strongly dialectal phenomena in favour of more prestigious/"standard" forms. Nevertheless, the dialect groups broadly correspond with modern ones.
356:
Der
Keyserliken Stadt Lübeck Christlike Ordeninge/ tho denste dem hilgen Evangelio/ Christliker leve/ tucht/ frede unde enicheyt/ vor de yöget yn eyner guden Schole tho lerende. Unde de Kercken denere und rechten armen Christlick tho vorsorgende. Dorch Jo. Bugen. Pom. beschreven.
1495:
appeared sporadically after consonants already in Old Saxon. Its use greatly increased in MLG, first at the end of a word, when it often marked the preceding vowel as long, but it later appears largely randomly. In very late times, the use of
1365:: A sound becoming more similar to a (usually) neighbouring sound, usually in place or manner of articulation, is very common across all languages. Early MLG did mark assimilation much more often in writing than later periods, e.g.
1921:
was voiced intervocalically as . Whether it was voiced word-initially is not fully clear. There seems to have been dialectal variation, with voiceless more likely for
Westphalian and voiced more likely for East Elbian dialects.
1768:
was originally an approximant but seems to have later shifted towards a fricative. Its exact articulation likely differed from dialect to dialect, and many of them merged word-internally with , an allophone of
3901:
Lexikologie. Ein internationales
Handbuch zur Natur und Struktur von Wörtern und Wortschätzen. 2. Halbband / Lexicology. An international handbook on the nature and structure of words and vocabularies. Volume
367:
at the service of the Holy Gospel of
Christian life, discipline, peace and unity, to teach the youth in a good school, and to provide Christianly for the church servants and the righteous poor. Written by
3499:
3656: with: several small samples with translations, preferably from different dialects and periods, to be taken e.g. from Lübben's (1882) chrestomathy (see links). Cf. also how it was done for
2281:. It did not indicate a different pronunciation but was part of an orthographic pattern seen in many other parts of Europe. Furthermore, in early western traditions of MLG, sometimes
1461:, were no longer pronounced as such. Instead, geminate spelling marks the preceding vowel as short. Many variants exist, like combinations of voiced and voiceless consonants (e.g.
1317:), some words had different sounds in different grammatical forms. In MLG, there were only fossilised remnants of the "grammatischer wechsel" (grammatical change), namely for
2594:
was. During the MLG era, it seems to have shifted to a "clear l" in many dialects and tended to be dropped in some usually unstressed words, especially in
Westphalian, e.g.,
2590:
was originally probably velarised, i.e. a "dark l" , at least in the coda, judging from its influence on surrounding vowels, but it was never extensively vocalised as Dutch
2916:
was usually written, though probably only spoken in the
Southwest. Lexically, strong connections with adjacent dialects further north (East Frisian and Oldenburgish), e.g.
1290:(with) might remain voiced before a vowel because they are perceived as one phonological unit with the following word. Also, as can already be seen in Old Saxon, lenited
1006:
The description is based on Lasch (1914) which continues to be the authoritative comprehensive grammar of the language but is not necessarily up-to-date in every detail.
2068:. The palatalisation, perhaps as or , persisted until the High Middle Ages but was later mostly reversed. Thus, for instance, the old affricate in the Slavic placename
939:) for an emergent spoken and written standard, but more recent work has established that there is no evidence for this and that Middle Low German was non-standardised.
1413:(garlic). Both forms frequently co-existed. The complete loss of a sound in proximity to an identical sound can also be explained in such a way, e.g. the loss of
781:), even if native speakers of Low German were mostly confined to the cities where they formed colonies of merchants and craftsmen. It was an official language of
591:('Eastlings'). This appellation was later expanded to other German Hanseatic cities and it was a general name for Hanseatic merchants in the Netherlands, e.g. in
672:
is today usually excluded from MLG (although very closely related), it is sometimes, especially in older literature, included in MLG, which then encompasses the
523:
2245:
with back vowels), and dialects that always used word-initially and word-internally (Eastphalian, Brandenburgian, e.g. word-internally after a back vowel:
4656:
3709:
6079:
1950:
is difficult to determine because of the extremely irregular orthography. Its status likely differed between the dialects, with early MLG having
472:(the Saxon language). In contrast to Latin as the primary written language, speakers also referred to discourse in Saxon as speaking/writing
5031:
4109:
343:
Translation: "All the world's magnificence is like a flower that grows today and vanishes tomorrow; the Lord's word remains in eternity." (
3197:(early times). The area within the Elbe's drainage was established by colonisation and is in many ways special. The southern part of this
4829:
2623:) to help the modern reader, but original MLG texts marked vowel length not by accents but by doubling vowels, by adding a lengthening
1255:
Round brackets indicate phonemes that do not have phoneme status in the whole language area or are marginal in the phonological system.
1915:(that, the (neut.)), the change also happened very early. The changes happened earliest in Westphalian and latest in North Low Saxon.
6069:
3367:. A colonial dialect strongly influenced by settlers speaking Low Franconian. Also strongly influenced by High German early on.
1752:) is used in modern dictionaries, in grammars and in this article simply for better readability. Thus, in the manuscripts, e.g.
1473:
Sundays). Late MLG tended to use clusters of similar consonants after short as well as long vowels for no apparent reason, e.g.
3962:
4076:
3544: with: overview of writings in MLG, e.g. Bible translations and other religious/spiritual literature, legal texts (e.g.
946:
to languages spoken around the Baltic Sea as a result of the activities of
Hanseatic traders. Its traces can be seen in the
4646:
3109:. While the Eastern dialects are today clearly distinguished from the West by their uniform present plural verb ending in
5558:
3927:
3754:
1736:
It has to be noted that in MLG (like in other medieval) texts, there is usually no clear graphic distinction between
3608:
3135:, due to the diverse regional origins of its chivalric elite, therefore MLG written culture was neglected early on.
835:. The language border then ran eastwards across the plain of the middle Elbe until it met the (then more extensive)
4102:
654:) seems to have been introduced later on by High German speakers and at first applied especially to Netherlanders.
615:
2576:
was likely an alveolar trill or flap , like in most traditional Low German dialects until recently. Post-vocalic
1219:
4071:
3612:
3581:
341:
Alle der warlde herlicheyt is alse ene blome de huete wasset un morge vorgheit. Des here wort blift y ewicheit.
863:
rivers, Low German began to retreat in favour of High German dialects already during Late Medieval times (cf.
5925:
4084:. Still under construction, but the website contains a very concise sketch of MLG grammar also based on Lasch
4049:
2958:
in the East. Its orthographic habits come closest to what was traditionally perceived as a MLG standard (the
3629:
2038:
before front vowels is strongly palatalised in Old Saxon (note the similar situation in the closely related
460:(MLG) is a scholarly term developed in hindsight, speakers in their time referred to the language mainly as
5955:
5125:
5087:
5072:
3720:
3394:
1590:
428:
period (from about 1300 to about 1600), Middle Low German was the leading written language in the north of
4399:
3390:
3286:
3282:
3254:
3250:
2970:
2966:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2861:
2857:
2591:
2587:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2546:
2542:
2490:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2455:
2441:
2433:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2372:
2350:
2334:
2310:
2301:
2293:
2286:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2241:
2217:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2161:
2151:
2111:
2035:
2016:
2008:
2002:
1998:
1990:
1986:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1926:
1918:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1841:
1837:
1824:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1781:
1770:
1765:
1661:
1657:
1649:
1618:
1586:
1571:
1561:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1538:
1530:
1515:
1511:
1438:
1434:
1414:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1338:
1334:
1322:
1318:
1291:
1227:
1206:
1198:
1193:
1181:
1176:
1166:
1159:
1153:
1128:
1108:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1062:
1057:
6074:
5935:
5795:
5145:
5104:
5094:
4095:
3661:
3561:
3132:
2751:
2707:
2658:
4311:
2615:
Modern renderings of MLG (like this article) often use circumflex or macron to mark vowel length (e.g.
391:
is an allegorical epic that was popular in medieval Europe. This is from the 1498 edition published in
703:
language of the preceding period, due to expansion to the East and, to a lesser degree, to the North.
6064:
5652:
1608:(geese) was quite common. Non-shifted forms have been common in the more innovative Eastern dialects.
869:
whose name is Low German but whose inhabitants already spoke mostly/exclusively High German when the
2262:
became a dorsal fricative (palatal or velar , depending on the preceding sound), thus merging with
6059:
5930:
5884:
5879:
5803:
5413:
5397:
5276:
5135:
5026:
5021:
2325:
word-initially as a stop is likely a comparatively recent innovation under High German influence.
2011:
is at best a marginal role as a phoneme and appears in loans or develops because of compounding or
1429:
1361:
947:
301:
4066:
3351:): Roughly between the middle Elbe and the middle Oder, and along the middle Havel, bordering old
5869:
5813:
5808:
5728:
5401:
5351:
4651:
4469:
4225:
4153:
4141:
2087:
1598:
1299:
519:
234:
159:
149:
5991:
5711:
5109:
3557:
3119:), in MLG times, both endings competed against each other in West and East. Main towns: Lübeck,
1500:
directly after the vowel is sometimes adopted from Modern High German as a sign of vowel length.
5874:
5356:
5322:
4940:
4756:
4616:
4456:
4351:
1030:
991:
770:
547:
344:
219:
3623:
3617:
6032:
5996:
5264:
5257:
5209:
4979:
4950:
4919:
4882:
4807:
4564:
4477:
4338:
4300:
2928:. Westphalian was and is often thought to be altogether the most conservative dialect group.
2838:) belonged to this group. Dutch influence on them strongly increased since the 15th century.
2082:. A few words and placenames completely palatalised and shifted their velar into a sibilant (
1309:
1188:
665:
627:
619:
128:
5497:
4372:
3657:
6001:
5981:
5950:
5823:
5683:
5429:
5247:
4839:
4666:
4628:
4623:
4497:
4444:
4202:
4015:
verleugnen, einige Reste sind auch im Bereich der Lautverschiebung unangetastet geblieben.
2523:
2321:"pennies". In contrast to modern varieties, it remained audible after a nasal. Pronouncing
870:
790:
680:
559:
204:
5657:
990:
Northern Germany and the cultural predominance of Central and Southern Germany during the
8:
6054:
5940:
5176:
5130:
5064:
4817:
4464:
4377:
4175:
3472:
1993:. Orthographic variants and some modern dialects seem to point to a more retracted, more
1458:
1148:
1119:
551:
369:
209:
5487:
5332:
4579:
4057:
4030:
5986:
5910:
5838:
5828:
5783:
5545:
5472:
5369:
5214:
5189:
5184:
5077:
4905:
4790:
4611:
4389:
4384:
4363:
4324:
4128:
4118:
3194:
3019:
substrate. As can be expected, there is much Westphalian, Dutch and Frisian influence (
1637:
ebb, low tide). Its allophones in other cases are word-internal and word-final (e.g.
1025:
979:
816:. In earlier times, these were sometimes included in the modern definition of MLG (cf.
684:
661:
214:
164:
154:
92:
80:
5140:
1660:, see above), otherwise between short vowels and nasals/liquids (also from historical
293:
5960:
5759:
5675:
5668:
5623:
5567:
5327:
5317:
5300:
5295:
5199:
5082:
4961:
4761:
4722:
4702:
4432:
4414:
4266:
3958:
3923:
3750:
3016:
1593:), but there were many exceptions and restorations through analogy: the shifted form
1282:(gift). The change took place early in MLG but is not always represented in writing.
1045:
1035:
971:
844:
836:
750:
736:
tribes. Some pockets of these native peoples persisted for quite some time, e.g. the
673:
4039:
2747:
2703:
2654:
2342:
1589:
had been deleted in certain coda positions several centuries earlier (the so-called
1570:(we have), cf. Modern Dutch for a similar process. Similarly, it often dropped from
660:
is a modern term used with varying degrees of inclusivity. It is distinguished from
5915:
5706:
5640:
5596:
5591:
5551:
5540:
5532:
5337:
5305:
5252:
5241:
5154:
4863:
4802:
4592:
4574:
4409:
4170:
4162:
4034:
2508:
was used for other purposes than its actual sound value: to mark vowel length (see
2489:(bright, famous). In unstressed syllables, it could also occur between a vowel and
1020:
983:
975:
963:
955:
951:
918:
677:
572:
425:
364:
318:
5752:
5945:
5905:
5738:
5645:
5628:
5613:
5608:
5601:
5310:
5219:
5204:
5159:
5011:
4974:
4966:
4945:
4932:
4912:
4898:
4661:
4638:
4569:
4559:
4551:
4331:
3503:
3446:
3344:
3332:
3216:
3202:
3166:
3142:
2935:
2783:
2198:
1314:
1270:
1040:
967:
959:
766:
623:
555:
490:
384:
141:
4031:
A grammar and chrestomathy of Middle Low German by Heinrich August Lübben (1882)
3432:
3426:
2844:: In the West, strong influence from Low Franconian orthographic patterns (e.g.
2545:
was a palatal approximant and remained separate from , the palatal allophone of
312:
6026:
5920:
5900:
5852:
5744:
5618:
5288:
5055:
4994:
4773:
4730:
4687:
4604:
4599:
4488:
4438:
4289:
4240:
4195:
4188:
3588:
3511:
3360:
2943:
2791:
2229:
1997:-like pronunciation (perhaps ), especially if there was no need to distinguish
1080:
843:
that separated it from High German. The border was never a sharp one, rather a
809:
786:
738:
733:
729:
515:
495:
437:
429:
420:
351:
332:
245:
132:
72:
645:
remained the most widespread term within MLG. The equivalent of 'Low German' (
6048:
5976:
5818:
5574:
5525:
5342:
5281:
5194:
5099:
5037:
4984:
4868:
4795:
4052:: A Middle Low German to German dictionary by Schiller/Lübben (1875–1881) at
1377:
914:
840:
646:
433:
3548:, Hanseatic documents), chronicles/histories, popular tales/chapbooks (e.g.
499:
5845:
5269:
5233:
5166:
4989:
4812:
4785:
4768:
4712:
4671:
4253:
4232:
4043:
3178:
2955:
2064:
2051:
995:
813:
753:-speaking areas along the North Sea diminished in favour of Saxon, esp. in
669:
511:
252:
5492:
3186:
2973:
in open syllables are stretched into a -like vowel. The personal suffixes
2823:
504:
277:
5662:
5635:
5453:
5361:
5043:
5004:
4587:
4282:
4246:
4181:
3437:. In East Anhaltish, distinction of dative and accusative pronouns (e.g.
3098:
3094:
3086:
2827:
2631:, by doubling the following consonants (after short vowels) or by adding
2358:
2122:(after historically short vowels and consonants) continued to be written
2039:
1673:
824:
805:
782:
754:
725:
717:
713:
712:(settlement of the East) in the 12th to 14th century and came to include
708:
636:
485:
415:
396:
84:
5507:
3922:] (in German) (9th ed.). München: C.H. Beck Verlag. p. 7.
3645:
3533:
3228:
3114:
3067:
2923:
2917:
2735:
2691:
2642:
2601:
2595:
2517:
2484:
2449:
2375:
was often epenthetised between a stressed and an unstressed vowel, e.g.
2328:
2246:
1684:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1457:: In MLG, geminate consonants, which came into being by assimilation or
630:
376:
5502:
5482:
4847:
4517:
4218:
3174:
2835:
2831:
2277:
or word-finally but began to spread to other positions, notably before
2055:
2012:
1453:
1052:
926:
865:
757:
which largely switched to MLG since the mid-14th century. North of the
743:
576:
531:
407:
124:
2807:
1433:: Some sounds tended to switch their places, especially the "liquids"
327:
5688:
5436:
4999:
4780:
4735:
4707:
4533:
4087:
3190:
3128:
3090:
2951:
2819:
2811:
2512:-spelling under "General Notes" above), to "strengthen" short words (
2353:
was frequently dropped between sonorants (except after nasals), e.g.
2042:) and at least some of early MLG, as can be seen from spellings like
1283:
1249:
922:
832:
797:
721:
700:
530:"of the people"; 'popular, vernacular') which could also be used for
441:
411:
395:, one of the major Hanseatic cities. The typeface is typical for the
286:
270:
191:
5512:
4081:
3957:(in German). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Edition. pp. 30–31.
3082:
2078:
930:
392:
360:
5477:
4825:
3321:). Lexically, close connections with Nordalbingian. Unusual plural
3170:
2860:). The "breaking" of old short vowels in open syllables and before
2815:
2405:
in the onset was a glottal fricative , and it merged with historic
1574:-clusters after unstressed vowels, especially in Westphalian, e.g.
943:
762:
706:
In the East, the MLG-speaking area expanded greatly as part of the
688:
4053:
1564:
often dropped out in unstressed position before consonants, e.g.,
933:
was dominant enough to become a normative standard (the so-called
534:
if the context was clear. Compare also the modern colloquial term
5518:
5114:
5016:
4072:
A Middle Low German to German dictionary by Gerhard Köbler (2010)
4062:
3598:
3413:, similar to High German. The past participle retains the prefix
3162:
3124:
3102:
3059:
2228:
can be seen a sign of lengthening of the preceding vowel, not of
774:
626:
to the south. It became dominant in the High German dialects (as
256:
112:
96:
76:
2702: with: description of the nominal system, possibly based on
2050:(child) and the variation of placename spellings, especially in
1929:(for example in loans from Romance or Slavic) was often written
847:. The modern convention is to use the pronunciation of northern
4821:
3425:('to show'); instead of them, forms close to High German, i.e.
3364:
3356:
3209:) area switched to High German already in Late Medieval times.
3182:
3120:
3063:
2746: with: description of the verbal system, possibly based on
2076:
could be reinterpreted as a velar stop, giving the modern name
801:
602:
592:
478:, i.e. 'clearly, intelligibly'. This contains the same root as
336:
108:
104:
100:
88:
4010:
Sprache und Geschichte an der mittleren Elbe und unteren Saale
3888:
Sprache und Geschichte an der mittleren Elbe und unteren Saale
3886:
Bischoff, Karl (1967). "Der Anschluss an das Mitteldeutsche".
3747:
Handbuch zur niederdeutschen Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft
2653: with: description of the vowel system, possibly based on
1958:, and e.g. East Elbian and in general many later dialects had
855:('to make') for determining an exact border. Along the middle
4739:
3955:
Die niederdeutsche Sprachgeschichte und das Deutsch von heute
3352:
3253:
is rarely marked as such, contrary to other dialects. Before
3150:
3047:
3012:
2803:
2799:
2095:
966:. It is considered the largest single source of loanwords in
860:
828:
2022:
In writing, it was often marked by copious clustering, e.g.
1954:(Westphalian keeping it until modern times) and no phonemic
1274:: Voiced obstruents in the syllable coda are devoiced, e.g.
3158:
3154:
3071:
3055:
3051:
2413:
after consonant or long vowel was frequently dropped, e.g.
2251:
856:
758:
445:
1784:
was kept strictly separate from at first, but the use of
4077:
Middle Low German influence on the Scandinavian languages
2421:(high). In a compound or phrase, it often became silent (
3602:
2950:): Spoken in a long stretch of coastal regions from the
1294:
is devoiced to before syllabic nasals or liquids, e.g.
436:
in the northern half of Europe. It was used parallel to
418:
and has been documented in writing since about 1225/34 (
3265:
are frequently interchanged for each other. Unstressed
1565:
640:
609:
596:
586:
580:
566:
479:
473:
467:
461:
2395:. In Westphalian, this sound could harden into , e.g.
3401:'goose'. Present plural of verbs features the suffix
777:. MLG exerted a huge influence upon Scandinavia (cf.
3872:
The following section based on Agathe Lasch (1914):
3293:). The past participle's prefix was commonly spoken
2118:
small), which later became rarer. However, geminate
1625:
flower, bloom), at the onset of stressed syllables (
571:(lit. 'East-ish') which was at first applied to the
3317:. Unusually, there is also a dative pronoun (1.sg.
3054:, and also Holstein on the right bank of the lower
1844:tended to drop out between unstressed vowels, e.g.
1744:. The distinction between both (consonant value as
664:, spoken to the south, which was later replaced by
317:Northern Europe in 1400, showing the extent of the
3846:The Northern Lands: Germanic Europe, c.1270–c.1500
3169:forms something of a natural border. Main cities:
1313:: Because of sound changes in Proto-Germanic (cf.
127:; gradually superseded as an official language by
3001:(2.pl.) are used for both dative and accusative.
2798:): Broadly speaking, the area between the middle
1903:, it was the case already in late Old Saxon. For
381:Eyne vorrede ouer dyt boek van reynken deme vosse
6046:
3492:
3486:
3480:
699:Middle Low German covered a wider area than the
885:Early Middle Low German (Standard High German:
827:dialects roughly along the northern borders of
579:(the 'East Sea'), their territory being called
3281:). The modal verb for 'shall/should' features
2556:before front vowels and was not confused with
1819:brother-in-law) but later mostly shifted to a
1656:father), word-finally (merged with historical
4103:
3305:('I' (pron. 1.sg.)) competed with "standard"
3301:under prescriptive influence. The local form
3165:region. In the north, the sparsely populated
2254:). Nevertheless, was kept separate from old
2005:. This is consistent with modern Westphalian.
1709:would be too similar graphically) and before
1701:as mentioned earlier and sporadically before
942:Middle Low German provided a large number of
929:. It used to be thought that the language of
742:along the lower Elbe until about 1700 or the
618:') gained ground, contrasting Saxon with the
3890:(in German). Köln: Böhlau. pp. 219–280.
2273:was at first used almost exclusively before
1001:
934:
904:
895:
886:
649:
541:
535:
3952:
3848:. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 180–198.
2300:because it completely merged with historic
2189:, e.g. in the frequent derivational suffix
1537:whether or not it developed from Old Saxon
812:dialects whose written language was mainly
527:
4110:
4096:
4012:(in German). Köln: Böhlau. p. 236 f.
3744:
3131:. High German influence was strong in the
311:
3355:territory to the Southeast. Main cities:
2479:(a first name) with the common component
773:, although the whole region was ruled by
746:of Eastern Pomerania up to modern times.
6080:Languages attested from the 12th century
4007:
3997:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. pp. 12–20.
3885:
2454:and the like because of its merger with
375:
350:
326:
3913:
3560:might be a good basis. You can help by
3381:were diphthongised into and , written
3233:'Saxon, Low German') and shifting also
3149:): Roughly the area east of the middle
2904:). The native present plural verbs was
1689:in the coda. Exceptions include loans (
1507:(Indented notes refer to orthography.)
785:, whose population consisted mostly of
635:, which could also refer to the modern
6047:
4117:
3814:
3784:
3745:Cordes, Gerhard; Möhn, Dieter (1983).
3004:Three subgroups can be distinguished:
2289:in all positions, even word-initially.
2144:otherwise appeared often after nasal (
1652:usually appeared word-initially (e.g.
1633:barber) and (historically) geminated (
1613:Specific notes on stops and fricatives
1381:: In MLG, it frequently happened with
881:Sub-periods of Middle Low German are:
383:, i.e. "A prologue about this book of
87:, Northwestern/North-central (modern)
5781:
5395:
4139:
4091:
4040:A grammar of Middle Low German (1914)
3992:
3977:
3857:
3829:
3815:Köbler, Gerhard (2014). "ōsterisch".
3799:
3769:
3749:. Erich Schmidt Verlag. p. 119.
3693:
3219:is more productive, occurring before
3015:, in the North including dialects on
2908:but the written norm often impressed
2580:sometimes dropped, especially before
1621:as a stop is always word-initially (
331:A Middle Low German inscription on a
123:13th to 16th centuries; evolved into
4046:(in German), at the Internet Archive
3785:Köbler, Gerhard (2014). "düde (1)".
3640:
3528:
3309:; in a similar way the oblique form
2826:. Some Saxon dialects in the modern
2730:
2686:
2637:
2409:in the coda (see above). Word-final
1925:Because of the variation, voiceless
4672:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
3920:Middle High German: An introduction
3862:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 1.
3834:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 6.
3804:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 5.
3774:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 5.
3698:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 5.
3611:in Low German as catalogued in the
3011:, i.e. the areas west of the lower
2912:. Similarly, the participle prefix
1807:were originally often written with
728:, which were hitherto dominated by
691:in the West to the eastern Baltic.
13:
6031:Languages between parentheses are
5396:
3916:Mittelhochdeutsch: eine Einführung
2864:was often marked in writing (e.g.
1852:, and in word-final clusters like
808:, MLG bordered on closely related
14:
6091:
4024:
3085:and the areas further east, like
2888:(sometimes reversed in writing);
2516:to go), to mark a vocalic onset (
1989:is the manner of articulation of
996:Luther's translation of the Bible
585:('East-land'), their inhabitants
16:Developmental stage of Low German
3904:Walter de Gruyter, 2005, p. 1180
3876:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer, p. 1-2.
3817:Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch
3787:Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch
3644:
3532:
3097:(Prignitz, Uckermark, Altmark),
2734:
2690:
2641:
2635:after the following consonants.
2309:After nasals and as a geminate,
2209:(him-/her-/itself, themselves).
1441:. Both forms may co-exist, e.g.
4001:
3986:
3971:
3946:
3936:
3907:
3894:
3879:
3866:
3851:
3838:
3636:
3157:mountains, reaching the middle
3153:, north and partly west of the
897:klassisches Mittelniederdeutsch
839:-speaking area along the upper
522:
6070:History of the German language
6035:of the language on their left.
3995:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3980:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3874:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3860:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3832:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3823:
3808:
3802:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3793:
3778:
3772:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3763:
3738:
3702:
3696:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3687:
3613:Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke
3582:Bible translations into German
3466:
3405:. Lack of negative determiner
3249:'place'). Diphthongised short
2537:Specific notes on approximants
2467:= frequently dropped between
2216:was used for a syllable-final
2177:Furthermore, after unstressed
1549:assimilated to before velars
823:In the South, MLG bordered on
608:In the 16th century, the term
451:
1:
5926:Germanic substrate hypothesis
5782:
3719:. p. 219. Archived from
3680:
3524:
3009:East Frisian and Oldenburgish
2677:
2391:(lady, woman) < Old Saxon
1985:Connected with the status of
1911:and some frequent words like
1349:(to take hold, to catch) but
1009:
894:Classical Middle Low German (
359:, i.e. "The Imperial City of
5956:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
4647:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
3953:Stellmacher, Dieter (2017).
3433:
3427:
1895:in the early MLG era. After
1591:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
1217:
1186:
1146:
1117:
1078:
1050:
406:is a developmental stage of
7:
5936:High German consonant shift
3615:, including the Low German
3609:Low German Incunable prints
3459:
2770:
2197:friendly (infl.)) or, with
1604:) with an unshifted plural
1514:had a tendency to shift to
761:, MLG advanced slowly into
558:in contrast to the written
10:
6096:
4474:Westlauwers–Terschellings
4127:According to contemporary
3273:) frequently changes into
2852:as a sign of length, like
2313:appeared as a stop , e.g.
2106:Early MLG frequently used
913:Middle Low German was the
909:): 1500–1600, or 1530–1650
900:): 1350–1500, or 1370–1530
891:): 1200–1350, or 1200–1370
876:
546:'plain, simple') denoting
6018:
5969:
5893:
5862:
5794:
5790:
5777:
5726:
5699:
5653:Southern Schleswig Danish
5584:
5465:
5421:
5412:
5408:
5391:
5232:
5175:
5063:
5054:
4959:
4931:
4890:
4881:
4856:
4838:
4749:
4721:
4695:
4686:
4637:
4550:
4525:
4516:
4455:
4350:
4299:
4274:
4265:
4161:
4152:
4148:
4135:
4125:
3914:Weddige, Hilkert (2015).
3717:The Linguasphere Register
3409:('no' (attr.)), instead:
3393:is restored, contrary to
3113:(against Western uniform
2922:('Wednesday') instead of
2610:
2168:, under Latin influence (
2158:, especially in the West.
1668:fork) and in loans (e.g.
1248:Square brackets indicate
1002:Phonology and orthography
694:
565:Another medieval term is
339:, Lower Saxony, Germany:
310:
300:
284:
268:
263:
242:
198:
184:
138:
119:
67:
63:; since the 16th century)
47:
26:
21:
5931:West Germanic gemination
5885:Ancient Belgian language
5880:Germanic parent language
5824:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
4946:Austrian Standard German
4140:
4082:Middle Low German corpus
3982:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer.
3395:Ingvaeonic sound changes
2383:(to sew) < Old Saxon
2258:. In the coda position,
1788:later also expanded to .
1505:Specific notes on nasals
1357:(taken hold of, caught).
1333:((they) chose), and for
921:, spoken all around the
903:Late Middle Low German (
410:. It developed from the
4058:at the Internet Archive
4008:Bischoff, Karl (1967).
3493:
3487:
3481:
3476:
3313:('me') with "standard"
3229:
3115:
2924:
2918:
2726:
2682:
2602:
2596:
2518:
2485:
2450:
2329:
2247:
2015:. Note the palatalised
1966:. If there is phonemic
1946:The phonemic status of
1685:
1683:in the syllable onset,
1566:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1463:
906:Spätmittelniederdeutsch
888:Frühmittelniederdeutsch
641:
631:
610:
597:
587:
581:
567:
480:
474:
468:
462:
95:, also sporadically in
5992:Preterite-present verb
5875:Proto-Germanic grammar
5829:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
4941:German Standard German
4617:East Frisian Low Saxon
3993:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3978:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3858:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3830:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3800:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3770:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3694:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3515:
3507:
3329:(South) Brandenburgish
3161:, but leaving out the
2962:, nowadays disputed).
2884:frequently shifted to
2522:our (infl.)) or vowel
2444:= was mostly written
1883:Remnants of Old Saxon
1823:-spelling, except for
1693:), some proper names (
1679:It was mostly written
992:Protestant Reformation
935:
905:
896:
887:
650:
542:
536:
498:
489:
400:
373:
372:the Pomeranian, 1531."
348:
131:and (in the far West)
57:nedderlendische sprâke
5997:Grammatischer Wechsel
4980:Namibian Black German
4951:Swiss Standard German
4920:Early New High German
4478:Mainland West Frisian
4339:Harlingerland Frisian
4065:, including texts in
3337:(Süd-)Brandenburgisch
2965:Some features: Short
2552:It was often spelled
2497:(not) < Old Saxon
2086:beetle, chafer, from
1831:from Latin influence.
1533:is sometimes spelled
1310:Grammatischer Wechsel
800:, the forests of the
666:Early New High German
595:where they had their
440:also for purposes of
399:used in MLG printing.
379:
354:
330:
61:nederlendesche sprake
6002:Indo-European ablaut
5982:Germanic strong verb
5951:Germanic spirant law
5088:Southeast Limburgish
4584:Gelders-Overijssels
4213:Irish Middle English
4203:Early Modern English
4033:(in German), at the
3389:. Old Germanic coda
3046:, between the lower
2880:was hardened into ;
2564:was sometimes used (
2164:usually appeared as
1970:, it often replaces
1848:(either) instead of
960:Standard High German
796:In the West, at the
681:Continental Germanic
614:(lit. 'Lowland-ish,
512:contemporary version
115:(confined to cities)
5970:Synchronic features
5941:Germanic a-mutation
5894:Diachronic features
5244:in the broad sense
5177:East Central German
5131:Lorraine Franconian
5105:Transylvanian Saxon
5065:West Central German
4840:East Low Franconian
4750:West Low Franconian
3844:D. Nicholas, 2009.
3558:This digitised book
3508:Mittelniederdeutsch
3297:but mostly written
2948:Noord-Nedersaksisch
2940:Nordniedersächsisch
2337:in older MLG, e.g.
2296:was mostly spelled
2185:often changed into
2130:bell), more rarely
1748:, vocalic value as
1526:(the (dat.sg.m.)).
1445:vs. (metathesised)
469:de sassische sprâke
370:Johannes Bugenhagen
365:Christian Ordinance
333:half-timbered house
6075:Medieval languages
5987:Germanic weak verb
5796:Language subgroups
5146:Pennsylvania Dutch
5095:Moselle Franconian
5073:Central Franconian
4906:Middle High German
4657:Central Pomeranian
4612:Northern Low Saxon
4325:Wangerooge Frisian
4119:Germanic languages
3660:. You can help by
3494:Middelneaderdüütsk
3488:Middelnedderdüüsch
3421:('to gather') and
3269:(as in the suffix
3027:'him'; plurals in
2750:. You can help by
2706:. You can help by
2657:. You can help by
2333:could be used for
2236:-spelling" below).
2154:was often written
2148:ring, (ice) rink).
1880:((he/she) writes).
1780:for word-internal
1518:in the coda, e.g.
749:In the North, the
662:Middle High German
401:
374:
349:
165:North Sea Germanic
93:Kaliningrad Oblast
6042:
6041:
6027:extinct languages
6014:
6013:
6010:
6009:
5961:Great Vowel Shift
5773:
5772:
5769:
5768:
5722:
5721:
5568:Greenlandic Norse
5387:
5386:
5383:
5382:
5379:
5378:
5318:Southern Bavarian
5301:Northern Bavarian
5277:Highest Alemannic
5228:
5227:
4962:standard variants
4877:
4876:
4723:Standard variants
4682:
4681:
4541:Middle Low German
4512:
4511:
4508:
4507:
4312:Saterland Frisian
4067:Middle Low German
3964:978-3-631-67548-9
3726:on 27 August 2014
3678:
3677:
3578:
3577:
2872:). Old geminated
2768:
2767:
2724:
2723:
2675:
2674:
1974:in clusters like
1941:etc. for clarity.
1672:to tighten, from
1245:
1244:
804:and close to the
683:dialects outside
674:dialect continuum
658:Middle Low German
458:Middle Low German
404:Middle Low German
325:
324:
170:Middle Low German
125:Modern Low German
81:Northern lowlands
59:(or unnormalised
51:(or unnormalised
22:Middle Low German
6087:
6065:Hanseatic League
5819:Elbe (Irminonic)
5792:
5791:
5779:
5778:
5707:Mainland Gutnish
5597:Swedish dialects
5559:Middle Icelandic
5533:Middle Norwegian
5422:Historical forms
5419:
5418:
5410:
5409:
5393:
5392:
5352:South Franconian
5338:Hutterite German
5306:Central Bavarian
5126:Rhine Franconian
5061:
5060:
4891:Historical forms
4888:
4887:
4803:Surinamese Dutch
4696:Historical forms
4693:
4692:
4526:Historical forms
4523:
4522:
4275:Historical forms
4272:
4271:
4159:
4158:
4150:
4149:
4137:
4136:
4112:
4105:
4098:
4089:
4088:
4035:Internet Archive
4018:
4017:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3990:
3984:
3983:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3950:
3944:
3940:
3934:
3933:
3911:
3905:
3898:
3892:
3891:
3883:
3877:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3855:
3849:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3812:
3806:
3805:
3797:
3791:
3790:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3767:
3761:
3760:
3742:
3736:
3735:
3733:
3731:
3725:
3714:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3691:
3673:
3670:
3648:
3641:
3630:Paris und Vienne
3573:
3570:
3536:
3529:
3518:
3516:Middelnederduits
3502:
3496:
3490:
3484:
3470:
3436:
3430:
3392:
3288:
3284:
3256:
3252:
3232:
3199:Elbe Eastphalian
3118:
3105:. Very close to
2972:
2968:
2927:
2921:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2863:
2859:
2763:
2760:
2738:
2731:
2719:
2716:
2694:
2687:
2670:
2667:
2645:
2638:
2605:
2599:
2593:
2589:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2560:= . The variant
2548:
2544:
2521:
2492:
2488:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2435:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2374:
2352:
2341:for the town of
2336:
2332:
2312:
2303:
2295:
2288:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2243:
2224:also, too). The
2219:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2163:
2153:
2113:
2037:
2018:
2010:
2004:
2000:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1928:
1920:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1843:
1839:
1826:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1783:
1772:
1767:
1688:
1663:
1659:
1651:
1620:
1588:
1578:(annually) <
1573:
1569:
1563:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1540:
1532:
1517:
1513:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1440:
1436:
1416:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1340:
1336:
1329:(to choose) but
1324:
1320:
1293:
1229:
1208:
1200:
1195:
1183:
1178:
1168:
1161:
1155:
1130:
1110:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1064:
1059:
1014:
1013:
956:Baltic languages
938:
919:Hanseatic League
908:
899:
890:
653:
644:
634:
622:dialects in the
613:
600:
590:
584:
570:
545:
539:
529:
508:N(i)ederduytsche
483:
477:
471:
465:
432:and served as a
414:language in the
319:Hanseatic League
315:
296:
280:
273:
248:
144:
83:), Northeastern
75:, viz. Northern
49:sassesche sprâke
19:
18:
6095:
6094:
6090:
6089:
6088:
6086:
6085:
6084:
6060:German dialects
6045:
6044:
6043:
6038:
6006:
5965:
5946:Germanic umlaut
5911:Holtzmann's law
5889:
5858:
5786:
5765:
5718:
5695:
5629:South Jutlandic
5614:Danish dialects
5580:
5461:
5404:
5375:
5357:East Franconian
5311:Viennese German
5224:
5205:Silesian German
5171:
5160:Central Hessian
5050:
4975:Namibian German
4964:
4955:
4933:Standard German
4927:
4913:New High German
4899:Old High German
4873:
4852:
4834:
4745:
4717:
4678:
4662:East Pomeranian
4652:Brandenburgisch
4639:East Low German
4633:
4560:Dutch Low Saxon
4552:West Low German
4546:
4504:
4470:Schiermonnikoog
4451:
4346:
4332:Wursten Frisian
4295:
4261:
4144:
4131:
4121:
4116:
4050:Schiller-Lübben
4027:
4022:
4021:
4006:
4002:
3991:
3987:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3951:
3947:
3941:
3937:
3930:
3912:
3908:
3899:
3895:
3884:
3880:
3871:
3867:
3856:
3852:
3843:
3839:
3828:
3824:
3819:(3rd ed.).
3813:
3809:
3798:
3794:
3789:(3rd ed.).
3783:
3779:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3743:
3739:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3712:
3708:
3707:
3703:
3692:
3688:
3683:
3674:
3668:
3665:
3654:needs expansion
3639:
3597:, a version of
3574:
3568:
3565:
3554:Dat Narrenschyp
3542:needs expansion
3527:
3522:
3521:
3498:
3471:
3467:
3462:
3167:Lunenburg Heath
2989:. The pronouns
2960:Lübeck standard
2954:in the West to
2932:North Low Saxon
2806:. Main cities:
2773:
2764:
2758:
2755:
2744:needs expansion
2729:
2720:
2714:
2711:
2700:needs expansion
2685:
2680:
2671:
2665:
2662:
2651:needs expansion
2613:
2530:(of the) lake).
2501:(not a thing).
2483:< Old Saxon
2199:final devoicing
2099:< Old Saxon
1421:(William) <
1271:Final devoicing
1012:
1004:
879:
697:
556:German dialects
454:
389:Reynard the Fox
385:Reynard the Fox
321:
292:
276:
269:
249:
244:
215:North Low Saxon
194:
187:
180:
145:
142:Language family
140:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6093:
6083:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6040:
6039:
6037:
6036:
6029:
6019:
6016:
6015:
6012:
6011:
6008:
6007:
6005:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5973:
5971:
5967:
5966:
5964:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5948:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5897:
5895:
5891:
5890:
5888:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5870:Proto-Germanic
5866:
5864:
5860:
5859:
5857:
5856:
5849:
5842:
5834:
5833:
5832:
5831:
5826:
5821:
5811:
5806:
5800:
5798:
5788:
5787:
5775:
5774:
5771:
5770:
5767:
5766:
5764:
5763:
5756:
5749:
5745:Crimean Gothic
5734:
5732:
5724:
5723:
5720:
5719:
5717:
5716:
5715:
5714:
5709:
5700:
5697:
5696:
5694:
5693:
5692:
5691:
5681:
5680:
5679:
5672:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5649:
5648:
5643:
5633:
5632:
5631:
5621:
5619:Insular Danish
5616:
5606:
5605:
5604:
5602:Rinkebysvenska
5599:
5588:
5586:
5582:
5581:
5579:
5578:
5571:
5564:
5563:
5562:
5555:
5543:
5538:
5537:
5536:
5529:
5522:
5516:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5469:
5467:
5463:
5462:
5460:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5450:
5448:Old East Norse
5445:
5443:Old West Norse
5433:
5425:
5423:
5416:
5406:
5405:
5389:
5388:
5385:
5384:
5381:
5380:
5377:
5376:
5374:
5373:
5366:
5365:
5364:
5354:
5349:
5348:
5347:
5346:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5323:South Tyrolean
5315:
5314:
5313:
5303:
5293:
5292:
5291:
5286:
5285:
5284:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5265:High Alemannic
5262:
5261:
5260:
5255:
5238:
5236:
5230:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5223:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5181:
5179:
5173:
5172:
5170:
5169:
5164:
5163:
5162:
5152:
5151:
5150:
5149:
5148:
5143:
5133:
5123:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5119:
5118:
5117:
5107:
5102:
5092:
5091:
5090:
5085:
5069:
5067:
5058:
5056:Central German
5052:
5051:
5049:
5048:
5047:
5046:
5041:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5014:
5009:
5008:
5007:
4997:
4995:Barossa German
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4971:
4969:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4937:
4935:
4929:
4928:
4926:
4925:
4924:
4923:
4909:
4902:
4894:
4892:
4885:
4879:
4878:
4875:
4874:
4872:
4871:
4866:
4860:
4858:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4844:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4832:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4799:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4774:French Flemish
4766:
4765:
4764:
4753:
4751:
4747:
4746:
4744:
4743:
4733:
4727:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4716:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4699:
4697:
4690:
4688:Low Franconian
4684:
4683:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4643:
4641:
4635:
4634:
4632:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4620:
4619:
4609:
4608:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4590:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4556:
4554:
4548:
4547:
4545:
4544:
4537:
4529:
4527:
4520:
4514:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4502:
4501:
4500:
4495:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4491:
4489:Westereendersk
4483:
4472:
4467:
4461:
4459:
4453:
4452:
4450:
4449:
4448:
4447:
4442:
4435:
4430:
4429:
4428:
4423:
4420:
4412:
4407:
4406:
4405:
4394:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4375:
4367:
4356:
4354:
4348:
4347:
4345:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4335:
4328:
4316:
4315:
4314:
4305:
4303:
4297:
4296:
4294:
4293:
4290:Middle Frisian
4286:
4278:
4276:
4269:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4250:
4238:
4237:
4236:
4229:
4222:
4210:
4209:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4196:Modern English
4192:
4189:Middle English
4185:
4178:
4167:
4165:
4156:
4146:
4145:
4133:
4132:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4115:
4114:
4107:
4100:
4092:
4086:
4085:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4060:
4047:
4037:
4026:
4025:External links
4023:
4020:
4019:
4000:
3985:
3970:
3963:
3945:
3935:
3928:
3906:
3893:
3878:
3865:
3850:
3837:
3822:
3807:
3792:
3777:
3762:
3755:
3737:
3701:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3658:Middle English
3651:
3649:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3627:and the novel
3606:
3592:
3589:Sachsenspiegel
3584:
3576:
3575:
3546:Sachsenspiegel
3539:
3537:
3526:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3482:Middelsassisch
3464:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3361:Frankfurt/Oder
3341:East Anhaltish
3133:Teutonic Order
3058:. main towns:
3050:and the lower
2876:and sometimes
2772:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2741:
2739:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2697:
2695:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2673:
2672:
2648:
2646:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2585:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2400:
2370:
2361:, mayor) <
2348:
2347:
2346:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2290:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2230:spirantisation
2175:
2174:
2173:
2159:
2149:
2139:
2093:; the city of
2060:Tzellingehusen
2033:
2032:
2031:
2019:(next point).
2006:
1983:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1916:
1881:
1872:(law, right),
1834:
1833:
1832:
1789:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1734:
1697:), cases like
1646:
1641:to drive, vs.
1610:
1609:
1583:
1558:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1502:
1501:
1486:
1450:
1426:
1374:
1358:
1306:
1278:(to give) but
1257:
1256:
1253:
1243:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1225:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1173:
1170:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1112:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1092:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1018:
1011:
1008:
1003:
1000:
911:
910:
901:
892:
878:
875:
810:Low Franconian
696:
693:
611:nedderlendisch
575:cities of the
520:Proto-Germanic
516:Dutch language
484:'German' (cf.
453:
450:
438:medieval Latin
430:Central Europe
424:). During the
421:Sachsenspiegel
323:
322:
316:
308:
307:
304:
298:
297:
290:
282:
281:
274:
266:
265:
264:Language codes
261:
260:
250:
246:Writing system
243:
240:
239:
238:
237:
235:Brandenburgish
232:
212:
207:
200:
196:
195:
190:
188:
185:
182:
181:
179:
178:
177:
176:
175:
174:
173:
172:
148:
146:
139:
136:
135:
121:
117:
116:
73:Central Europe
69:
65:
64:
53:sassche sprake
45:
44:
38:Nedderlendisch
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6092:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6052:
6050:
6034:
6030:
6028:
6024:
6021:
6020:
6017:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5977:Germanic verb
5975:
5974:
5972:
5968:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5916:Sievers's law
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5898:
5896:
5892:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5863:Reconstructed
5861:
5855:
5854:
5850:
5848:
5847:
5843:
5841:
5840:
5836:
5835:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5816:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5780:
5776:
5762:
5761:
5757:
5755:
5754:
5750:
5747:
5746:
5741:
5740:
5736:
5735:
5733:
5731:
5730:
5725:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5704:
5702:
5701:
5698:
5690:
5687:
5686:
5685:
5682:
5678:
5677:
5676:Middle Danish
5673:
5671:
5670:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5638:
5637:
5634:
5630:
5627:
5626:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5615:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5607:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5594:
5593:
5590:
5589:
5587:
5583:
5577:
5576:
5572:
5570:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5560:
5556:
5554:
5553:
5552:Old Icelandic
5549:
5548:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5535:
5534:
5530:
5528:
5527:
5526:Old Norwegian
5523:
5520:
5517:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5475:
5474:
5471:
5470:
5468:
5464:
5456:
5455:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5440:
5439:
5438:
5434:
5432:
5431:
5427:
5426:
5424:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5394:
5390:
5372:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5360:
5359:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5344:
5343:Gottscheerish
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5320:
5319:
5316:
5312:
5309:
5308:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5297:
5294:
5290:
5287:
5283:
5282:Walser German
5280:
5279:
5278:
5275:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5266:
5263:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5250:
5249:
5248:Low Alemannic
5246:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5239:
5237:
5235:
5231:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5210:High Prussian
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5195:Erzgebirgisch
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5182:
5180:
5178:
5174:
5168:
5165:
5161:
5158:
5157:
5156:
5153:
5147:
5144:
5142:
5139:
5138:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5128:
5127:
5124:
5116:
5113:
5112:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5100:Luxembourgish
5098:
5097:
5096:
5093:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5080:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5074:
5071:
5070:
5068:
5066:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5053:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5039:
5038:Klezmer-loshn
5035:
5033:
5032:Scots Yiddish
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5019:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5006:
5003:
5002:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4930:
4922:
4921:
4917:
4916:
4915:
4914:
4910:
4908:
4907:
4903:
4901:
4900:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4880:
4870:
4869:Meuse-Rhenish
4867:
4865:
4862:
4861:
4859:
4855:
4849:
4846:
4845:
4843:
4841:
4837:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4800:
4797:
4796:Kleverlandish
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4775:
4772:
4771:
4770:
4767:
4763:
4760:
4759:
4758:
4757:Central Dutch
4755:
4754:
4752:
4748:
4741:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4724:
4720:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4700:
4698:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4685:
4673:
4670:
4669:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4644:
4642:
4640:
4636:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4618:
4615:
4614:
4613:
4610:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4565:Stellingwarfs
4563:
4562:
4561:
4558:
4557:
4555:
4553:
4549:
4543:
4542:
4538:
4536:
4535:
4531:
4530:
4528:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4515:
4499:
4496:
4490:
4487:
4486:
4485:Wood Frisian
4484:
4481:
4480:
4479:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4454:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4440:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4427:
4424:
4421:
4418:
4417:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4403:
4402:
4401:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4365:
4361:
4360:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4353:
4352:North Frisian
4349:
4341:
4340:
4336:
4334:
4333:
4329:
4327:
4326:
4322:
4321:
4320:
4317:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4306:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4287:
4285:
4284:
4280:
4279:
4277:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4256:
4255:
4251:
4249:
4248:
4244:
4243:
4242:
4239:
4235:
4234:
4230:
4228:
4227:
4223:
4221:
4220:
4216:
4215:
4214:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4200:
4199:
4198:
4197:
4193:
4191:
4190:
4186:
4184:
4183:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4164:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4154:Anglo-Frisian
4151:
4147:
4143:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4120:
4113:
4108:
4106:
4101:
4099:
4094:
4093:
4090:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4064:
4063:Project TITUS
4061:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4048:
4045:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4016:
4011:
4004:
3996:
3989:
3981:
3974:
3966:
3960:
3956:
3949:
3939:
3931:
3929:9783406684388
3925:
3921:
3917:
3910:
3903:
3897:
3889:
3882:
3875:
3869:
3861:
3854:
3847:
3841:
3833:
3826:
3818:
3811:
3803:
3796:
3788:
3781:
3773:
3766:
3758:
3756:3-503-01645-7
3752:
3748:
3741:
3722:
3718:
3711:
3705:
3697:
3690:
3686:
3672:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3652:This section
3650:
3647:
3643:
3642:
3632:
3631:
3626:
3625:
3624:Danse Macabre
3620:
3619:
3618:Ship of Fools
3614:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3603:at wikisource
3600:
3596:
3595:Reynke de Vos
3593:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3572:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3550:Reynke de Vos
3547:
3543:
3540:This section
3538:
3535:
3531:
3530:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3495:
3489:
3483:
3478:
3477:Middelsassisk
3474:
3469:
3465:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3435:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3371:Some features
3368:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3349:Ostanhaltisch
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3213:Some features
3210:
3208:
3207:Elbostfälisch
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3107:Nordalbingian
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3075:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3044:Nordalbingian
3040:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2920:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2871:
2867:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2842:Some features
2839:
2837:
2833:
2830:(esp. modern
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2762:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2742:This section
2740:
2737:
2733:
2732:
2718:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2698:This section
2696:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2669:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2649:This section
2647:
2644:
2640:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2604:
2600:, instead of
2598:
2586:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2550:
2541:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2529:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2462:
2452:
2447:
2440:, while coda
2439:
2431:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2401:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2380:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2360:
2356:
2349:
2344:
2340:
2331:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2308:
2299:
2291:
2285:was used for
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2269:The spelling
2268:
2267:
2253:
2249:
2240:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2215:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2160:
2157:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2109:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2052:Nordalbingian
2049:
2045:
2041:
2034:
2030:(archbishop).
2029:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2014:
2007:
1996:
1984:
1962:from earlier
1945:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1923:
1917:
1914:
1907:, word-final
1882:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1864:, e.g. often
1851:
1847:
1835:
1830:
1827:, which kept
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1791:The clusters
1790:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1774:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1717:. Sometimes,
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1655:
1647:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1630:
1624:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1607:
1603:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1585:Furthermore,
1584:
1581:
1577:
1568:
1559:
1545:
1536:
1529:Intervocalic
1528:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1460:
1456:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1424:
1420:
1412:
1408:
1405:(barber), or
1404:
1400:
1380:
1379:
1378:Dissimilation
1375:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1363:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1332:
1328:
1316:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1297:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1264:General notes
1261:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1180:
1174:
1172:
1171:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1093:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1007:
999:
997:
993:
987:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
958:, as well as
957:
953:
949:
945:
940:
937:
936:Lübecker Norm
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
915:lingua franca
907:
902:
898:
893:
889:
884:
883:
882:
874:
872:
868:
867:
862:
858:
854:
851:vs. southern
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
821:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
771:North Frisian
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
747:
745:
741:
740:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
710:
704:
702:
692:
690:
686:
682:
679:
678:high-medieval
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
652:
651:niederdeutsch
648:
643:
638:
633:
632:niderländisch
629:
625:
621:
617:
616:Netherlandish
612:
606:
604:
601:(office; see
599:
594:
589:
583:
578:
574:
569:
563:
561:
557:
553:
549:
544:
538:
537:Platt(dütsch)
533:
526:
525:
521:
518:) both from
517:
513:
509:
506:
502:
501:
497:
493:
492:
487:
482:
476:
470:
464:
459:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
434:lingua franca
431:
427:
423:
422:
417:
413:
409:
405:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
371:
366:
362:
358:
353:
346:
342:
338:
334:
329:
320:
314:
309:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
289:
288:
283:
279:
275:
272:
267:
262:
258:
254:
251:
247:
241:
236:
233:
231:
227:
226:Nordalbingian
223:
222:—Oldenburgish
221:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
202:
201:
197:
193:
189:
183:
171:
168:
167:
166:
163:
162:
161:
160:West Germanic
158:
157:
156:
153:
152:
151:
150:Indo-European
147:
143:
137:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
79:(roughly the
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
43:
39:
35:
31:
30:
25:
20:
6022:
5906:Verner's law
5851:
5846:Gotho-Nordic
5844:
5837:
5758:
5751:
5743:
5737:
5727:
5712:Fårö Gutnish
5674:
5667:
5573:
5566:
5557:
5550:
5531:
5524:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5435:
5428:
5368:
5270:Swiss German
5234:Upper German
5167:Amana German
5141:Volga German
5110:Hunsrückisch
5036:
4990:Unserdeutsch
4985:Berlinerisch
4918:
4911:
4904:
4897:
4857:Cover groups
4813:Mohawk Dutch
4808:Jersey Dutch
4786:East Flemish
4769:West Flemish
4713:Middle Dutch
4667:Low Prussian
4540:
4539:
4532:
4498:Terschelling
4482:Clay Frisian
4457:West Frisian
4445:Wiedingharde
4437:
4425:
4385:Heligolandic
4362:
4337:
4330:
4323:
4318:
4301:East Frisian
4288:
4281:
4254:Middle Scots
4252:
4245:
4231:
4224:
4217:
4212:
4201:
4194:
4187:
4180:
4054:Mediaevum.de
4044:Agathe Lasch
4013:
4009:
4003:
3994:
3988:
3979:
3973:
3954:
3948:
3943:(at p. 118).
3938:
3919:
3915:
3909:
3900:
3896:
3887:
3881:
3873:
3868:
3859:
3853:
3845:
3840:
3831:
3825:
3816:
3810:
3801:
3795:
3786:
3780:
3771:
3765:
3746:
3740:
3728:. Retrieved
3721:the original
3716:
3704:
3695:
3689:
3666:
3662:adding to it
3653:
3637:Sample texts
3628:
3622:
3616:
3594:
3587:
3566:
3562:adding to it
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3468:
3453:
3449:
3442:
3438:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3369:
3348:
3340:
3336:
3328:
3327:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3224:
3220:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3198:
3146:
3138:
3137:
3110:
3106:
3081:, including
3078:
3076:
3043:
3041:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3008:
3006:
3003:
2998:
2997:(2.sg.) and
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2964:
2959:
2956:East Prussia
2947:
2939:
2931:
2930:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2869:
2865:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2795:
2787:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2756:
2752:adding to it
2748:Lasch (1914)
2743:
2712:
2708:adding to it
2704:Lasch (1914)
2699:
2663:
2659:adding to it
2655:Lasch (1914)
2650:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2614:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2536:
2535:
2527:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2498:
2494:
2480:
2476:
2445:
2437:
2436:was written
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2378:
2376:
2364:
2362:
2354:
2338:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2304:(see below).
2297:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2233:
2225:
2221:
2213:
2206:
2202:
2194:
2190:
2169:
2165:
2155:
2145:
2141:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2107:
2100:
2094:
2090:
2083:
2077:
2071:
2069:
2065:Kellinghusen
2063:
2059:
2047:
2043:
2025:
2023:
1994:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1912:
1887:shifted via
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1849:
1845:
1836:The dentals
1828:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1785:
1777:
1776:In writing,
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1721:is used for
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1680:
1669:
1665:
1653:
1645:drive (n.)).
1642:
1638:
1634:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1612:
1611:
1605:
1601:
1597:(goose <
1594:
1579:
1575:
1534:
1523:
1519:
1504:
1503:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1452:
1446:
1442:
1428:
1422:
1418:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1376:
1370:
1366:
1362:Assimilation
1360:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1330:
1326:
1315:Verner's law
1308:
1302:
1298:(fork) from
1295:
1287:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1175:
1097:
1088:
1005:
988:
948:Scandinavian
941:
912:
880:
864:
852:
848:
822:
817:
814:Middle Dutch
795:
778:
748:
737:
707:
705:
698:
670:Middle Dutch
657:
656:
607:
564:
552:West Central
510:to mean the
507:
457:
455:
419:
403:
402:
388:
380:
355:
340:
302:Linguasphere
285:
229:
225:
220:East Frisian
218:
169:
60:
56:
52:
48:
41:
37:
33:
28:
27:
5921:Kluge's law
5901:Grimm's law
5684:Dalecarlian
5663:Perkerdansk
5636:East Danish
5454:Old Gutnish
5430:Proto-Norse
5370:Langobardic
5362:Vogtlandian
5190:Upper Saxon
5044:Lachoudisch
5005:Lotegorisch
4883:High German
4629:Westphalian
4624:Eastphalian
4588:Achterhooks
4465:Hindeloopen
4400:Bökingharde
4369:Föhr–Amrum
4283:Old Frisian
4247:Early Scots
4182:Old English
3373:: Old long
3139:Eastphalian
3099:Old Prussia
3095:Brandenburg
3093:, northern
3087:Mecklenburg
3079:East Elbian
3039:'friend').
2892:instead of
2868:instead of
2828:Netherlands
2788:Westfälisch
2780:Westphalian
2359:burgomaster
2343:Düringerode
2339:Dudiggerode
2252:vogt, reeve
2212:Sometimes,
2205:instead of
2062:for modern
2056:Eastphalian
2040:Old English
1674:High German
1567:hebbe(n) wi
1489:h spellings
1369:instead of
1286:words like
1189:Approximant
871:Reformation
825:High German
818:Terminology
806:Lower Rhine
783:Old Livonia
755:East Frisia
718:Brandenburg
714:Mecklenburg
709:Ostsiedlung
637:Netherlands
505:archaically
486:High German
466:(Saxon) or
452:Terminology
416:Middle Ages
397:blackletter
230:East Elbian
210:Eastphalian
205:Westphalian
129:High German
85:Netherlands
6055:Low German
6049:Categories
5753:Burgundian
5669:Old Danish
5658:Gøtudanskt
5641:Bornholmsk
5503:Vestlandsk
5483:Kebabnorsk
5220:Halcnovian
5185:Thuringian
4848:Limburgish
4818:Stadsfries
4791:Brabantian
4518:Low German
4364:Eiderstedt
4219:Fingallian
3681:References
3669:March 2019
3569:March 2019
3525:Literature
3473:Low German
3417:. Lack of
3175:Hildesheim
3147:Ostfälisch
2981:appear as
2919:godensdach
2836:Overijssel
2832:Gelderland
2802:and lower
2759:March 2019
2715:March 2019
2678:Morphology
2666:March 2019
2429:William).
2317:"to say",
2195:vrüntligen
2013:epenthesis
1648:Voiceless
1454:Gemination
1449:(to burn).
1430:Metathesis
1250:allophones
1010:Consonants
927:Baltic Sea
866:Wittenberg
859:and lower
765:, against
744:Kashubians
724:and (Old)
588:Ôsterlinge
577:Baltic Sea
532:Low German
524:*þiudiskaz
408:Low German
186:Early form
6033:varieties
6025:indicate
5839:Northwest
5784:Philology
5689:Elfdalian
5624:Jutlandic
5546:Icelandic
5521:(written)
5515:(written)
5493:Trøndersk
5473:Norwegian
5437:Old Norse
5258:Coloniero
5242:Alemannic
5215:Wymysorys
5083:Colognian
5078:Ripuarian
5000:Rotwelsch
4830:Midslands
4781:Zeelandic
4762:Hollandic
4736:Afrikaans
4708:Old Dutch
4534:Old Saxon
4433:Karrharde
4415:Goesharde
4396:Mainland
4129:philology
3500:‹See Tfd›
3325:('men').
3191:Magdeburg
3187:Göttingen
3179:Brunswick
3129:Stralsund
3091:Pomerania
3068:Lunenburg
2993:(1.sg.),
2952:Zuiderzee
2925:middeweke
2824:Osnabrück
2820:Bielefeld
2812:Paderborn
2796:Westfaals
2486:-ber(a)ht
2477:Engelbert
2448:but also
2355:bormêster
2319:penninghe
2172:to come).
2028:ebischope
1491:: A mute
1467:letters,
1373:(of the).
1355:*fanganaz
1284:Proclitic
1149:Fricative
1120:Affricate
1031:Post-alv.
980:Norwegian
944:loanwords
923:North Sea
873:set in).
845:continuum
833:Thuringia
798:Zuiderzee
722:Pomerania
701:Old Saxon
668:. Though
639:), while
582:Ôsterlant
573:Hanseatic
442:diplomacy
426:Hanseatic
412:Old Saxon
306:52-ACB-ca
287:Glottolog
271:ISO 639-3
192:Old Saxon
91:, modern
71:Northern
5760:Vandalic
5703:Gutnish
5508:Vikværsk
5488:Sognamål
5478:Bergensk
5328:Cimbrian
5296:Bavarian
5253:Alsatian
5200:Lusatian
5136:Palatine
4826:Amelands
4703:Frankish
4593:Sallaans
4575:Gronings
4426:Southern
4419:Northern
4410:Halligen
4359:Insular
4176:dialects
3460:Endnotes
3230:sessisch
3035:next to
3023:next to
2816:Dortmund
2771:Dialects
1876:next to
1868:next to
1850:antwēder
1695:Frederik
1670:straffen
1580:jârlings
1470:sontdage
1403:barbêrer
1399:balbêrer
1371:van deme
1353:< PG
1351:gevangen
1347:*fanhaną
1345:< PG
1026:Alveolar
972:Estonian
925:and the
793:tribes.
763:Sleswick
689:Flanders
642:sassisch
568:ôstersch
560:standard
463:sassisch
444:and for
347:1:24–25)
294:midd1318
217:, incl.
199:Dialects
155:Germanic
42:Ôstersch
29:Sassisch
6023:Italics
5646:Scanian
5592:Swedish
5541:Faroese
5519:Nynorsk
5498:Valdris
5333:Mòcheno
5289:Swabian
5155:Hessian
5115:Hunsrik
5027:Western
5022:Eastern
5017:Yiddish
4967:creoles
4864:Bergish
4580:Drèents
4570:Tweants
4422:Central
4404:Mooring
4267:Frisian
4226:Kildare
4171:English
3730:1 March
3599:Reynard
3428:samenen
3419:gaderen
3397:, e.g.
3353:Sorbian
3171:Hanover
3163:Altmark
3125:Rostock
3103:Livonia
3060:Hamburg
3017:Frisian
2808:Münster
2568:youth).
2504:Often,
2499:niowiht
2493:, e.g.
2475:, e.g.
2427:Wilhelm
2399:(eggs).
2367:rmêster
2058:, e.g.
1878:schrîft
1705:(where
1664:, e.g.
1485:(time).
1464:breifve
1459:syncope
1443:brennen
1423:Wilhelm
1411:kluflôk
1407:knuflôk
1397:, e.g.
1341:, e.g.
1325:, e.g.
1303:*gabalō
1241:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1224:
1220:Lateral
1214:
1211:
1203:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1124:
1114:
1103:
1075:
1070:
1067:
1046:Glottal
1036:Palatal
1017:
984:Swedish
976:Latvian
964:English
917:of the
877:History
779:History
775:Denmark
751:Frisian
726:Prussia
687:, from
676:of all
624:uplands
598:komptôr
514:of the
491:deutsch
481:dǖdisch
475:to dǖde
345:1 Peter
257:Fraktur
113:Estonia
97:Denmark
77:Germany
34:Dǖdisch
5739:Gothic
5609:Danish
5513:Bokmål
5012:Yenish
4822:Bildts
4605:Veluws
4600:Urkers
4439:Strand
4163:Anglic
3961:
3926:
3753:
3504:German
3445:, cf.
3434:teigen
3365:Zerbst
3357:Berlin
3339:) and
3289:(i.e.
3285:, not
3279:-schup
3271:-schop
3243:stidde
3241:(e.g.
3227:(e.g.
3217:Umlaut
3183:Goslar
3121:Wismar
3083:Lübeck
3064:Bremen
2611:Vowels
2597:as(se)
2524:hiatus
2519:hvnsen
2432:Onset
2423:Willem
2397:eggere
2389:vrûghe
2385:*nāian
2315:seggen
2232:(see "
2170:quêmen
2128:klocke
2126:(e.g.
2101:Kiellu
2091:*kebrô
2079:Lübeck
1874:schrîf
1846:antwēr
1817:svager
1760:(but).
1725:, and
1699:gaffel
1691:figûre
1666:gaffel
1639:drêven
1576:jârlix
1560:Final
1447:bernen
1419:Willem
1296:gaffel
1021:Labial
968:Danish
954:, and
952:Finnic
931:Lübeck
853:machen
802:Veluwe
791:Finnic
787:Baltic
767:Danish
734:Baltic
730:Slavic
695:Extent
620:German
603:Kontor
593:Bruges
540:(from
456:While
393:Lübeck
361:Lübeck
337:Hameln
109:Latvia
105:Norway
101:Sweden
89:Poland
68:Region
5853:South
5804:North
5414:North
5398:North
4740:Kaaps
4731:Dutch
4378:Amrum
4319:Weser
4241:Scots
3918:[
3724:(PDF)
3713:(PDF)
3512:Dutch
3423:tőgen
3323:menne
3291:schal
3247:stêde
3225:-isch
3195:Halle
3151:Weser
3116:-(e)t
3048:Weser
3037:vrünt
3033:vrent
3013:Weser
2944:Dutch
2902:schal
2804:Rhine
2800:Weser
2792:Dutch
2606:(as).
2566:yöget
2528:sêhes
2481:-bert
2463:Coda
2425:<
2387:, or
2330:gg(h)
2292:Coda
2248:voyet
2201:, in
2146:ringk
2116:cleyn
2096:Celle
2084:sever
2070:Liubi
2009:/t͡s/
1980:/sn-/
1976:/sl-/
1891:into
1870:recht
1862:/-st/
1858:/-xt/
1854:/-ft/
1825:/kw-/
1805:/kw-/
1801:/sw-/
1797:/tw-/
1793:/dw-/
1654:vader
1623:blôme
1606:gense
1602:*gans
1522:>
1476:tidth
1409:<
1401:<
1367:vamme
1331:koren
1327:kêsen
1276:geven
1260:era.
1053:Nasal
1041:Velar
861:Saale
849:maken
841:Spree
829:Hesse
739:Wends
543:platt
500:duits
496:Dutch
446:deeds
253:Latin
133:Dutch
5814:West
5809:East
5729:East
5585:East
5575:Norn
5466:West
5402:East
5400:and
4965:and
4960:Non-
4390:Sylt
4373:Föhr
4308:Ems
4233:Yola
4142:West
4056:and
3959:ISBN
3924:ISBN
3751:ISBN
3732:2013
3586:The
3454:mich
3452:and
3431:and
3411:keyn
3399:gans
3385:and
3377:and
3261:and
3245:for
3223:and
3221:-ich
3159:Elbe
3155:Harz
3077:(3)
3072:Kiel
3056:Elbe
3052:Elbe
3042:(2)
3007:(1)
2987:-old
2985:and
2979:-ald
2977:and
2969:and
2886:/xt/
2882:/ft/
2878:/ww/
2874:/jj/
2870:korn
2866:karn
2858:/oː/
2834:and
2727:Verb
2683:Noun
2603:alse
2514:ghân
2471:and
2451:g(h)
2415:hôch
2393:frūa
2335:/ŋɡ/
2203:sich
2191:-lik
2162:/kw/
2152:/ks/
2110:for
2054:and
2048:kint
2046:for
2044:zint
2001:and
1978:and
1964:/sk/
1952:/sk/
1909:/-θ/
1905:/rθ/
1899:and
1866:rech
1840:and
1758:aver
1754:auer
1740:and
1729:for
1713:and
1686:f(f)
1643:drêf
1635:ebbe
1631:êrer
1572:/nɡ/
1553:and
1539:/mb/
1479:for
1437:and
1393:vs.
1385:vs.
1337:and
1321:and
1280:gift
1081:Stop
994:and
982:and
962:and
857:Elbe
837:Sorb
831:and
789:and
769:and
759:Elbe
732:and
628:ENHG
550:(or
528:lit.
357:1531
4042:by
3710:"m"
3664:.
3564:.
3556:).
3491:or
3456:).
3450:mir
3443:mik
3441:vs
3415:ge-
3407:nên
3403:-en
3391:/n/
3311:mik
3299:ge-
3287:/s/
3283:/ʃ/
3255:/r/
3251:/o/
3237:to
3111:-en
3021:hem
2983:-ar
2975:-er
2971:/i/
2967:/e/
2914:ge-
2910:-en
2906:-et
2900:vs
2898:sal
2894:/ʃ/
2890:/s/
2862:/r/
2848:or
2754:.
2710:.
2661:.
2627:or
2619:or
2592:/l/
2588:/l/
2582:/s/
2578:/r/
2574:/r/
2547:/ɣ/
2543:/j/
2495:nit
2491:/t/
2473:/t/
2469:/r/
2465:/h/
2456:/ɣ/
2442:/h/
2434:/h/
2417:or
2411:/h/
2407:/ɣ/
2403:/h/
2377:nei
2373:/ɣ/
2363:bor
2351:/ɣ/
2311:/ɣ/
2302:/h/
2294:/ɡ/
2287:/ɡ/
2264:/h/
2260:/ɣ/
2256:/j/
2242:/ɣ/
2222:ôch
2218:/k/
2207:sik
2187:/ɣ/
2183:/k/
2179:/ɪ/
2134:or
2112:/k/
2103:).
2036:/k/
2026:tzc
2017:/k/
2003:/ʃ/
1999:/s/
1991:/s/
1987:/ʃ/
1972:/s/
1968:/ʃ/
1960:/ʃ/
1956:/ʃ/
1948:/ʃ/
1927:/s/
1919:/s/
1913:dat
1901:/n/
1897:/l/
1893:/d/
1889:/ð/
1885:/θ/
1860:or
1842:/d/
1838:/t/
1782:/w/
1771:/b/
1766:/w/
1756:is
1676:).
1662:/b/
1658:/b/
1650:/f/
1627:bar
1619:/b/
1595:gôs
1587:/n/
1562:/n/
1555:/ɣ/
1551:/k/
1547:/n/
1531:/m/
1524:den
1520:dem
1516:/n/
1512:/m/
1482:tîd
1439:/r/
1435:/l/
1417:in
1415:/l/
1395:/n/
1391:/l/
1389:or
1387:/r/
1383:/l/
1343:vân
1339:/ɡ/
1335:/h/
1323:/r/
1319:/s/
1292:/b/
1288:mid
1129:t͡s
820:).
685:MHG
647:NHG
605:).
548:Low
387:".
363:'s
335:in
278:gml
120:Era
55:),
6051::
3902:2.
3715:.
3621:,
3552:,
3514::
3510:,
3506::
3497:,
3485:,
3479:,
3475::
3447:HG
3439:mi
3363:,
3359:,
3347::
3345:HG
3335::
3333:HG
3319:mê
3315:mî
3307:ik
3303:ek
3295:e-
3257:,
3215::
3205::
3203:HG
3193:,
3189:,
3185:,
3181:,
3177:,
3173:,
3145::
3143:HG
3127:,
3123:,
3101:,
3089:,
3074:.
3070:,
3066:,
3062:,
3031:;
3029:-s
3025:em
2999:jû
2995:dî
2991:mî
2946::
2942:,
2938::
2936:HG
2856:=
2854:oi
2822:,
2818:,
2814:,
2810:,
2794::
2790:,
2786::
2784:HG
2558:gh
2549:.
2446:ch
2419:hô
2381:en
2365:ge
2298:ch
2283:ch
2271:gh
2266:.
2214:ch
2181:,
2166:qu
2142:gk
2136:gk
2132:kk
2124:ck
2088:PG
2024:er
1995:sh
1937:,
1935:cz
1933:,
1931:tz
1856:,
1829:qu
1803:,
1799:,
1795:,
1773:.
1727:ph
1599:PG
1535:mb
1300:PG
1169:)
1131:)
998:.
986:.
978:,
974:,
970:,
950:,
720:,
716:,
562:.
554:)
494:,
488::
448:.
228:,
224:,
111:,
107:,
103:,
99:,
40:,
36:,
32:,
5748:)
5742:(
4828:/
4824:/
4820:/
4742:)
4738:(
4111:e
4104:t
4097:v
3967:.
3932:.
3759:.
3734:.
3671:)
3667:(
3605:)
3601:(
3571:)
3567:(
3387:u
3383:i
3379:ô
3375:ê
3343:(
3331:(
3277:(
3275:u
3267:o
3263:a
3259:e
3239:i
3235:e
3201:(
3141:(
2934:(
2896:(
2850:i
2846:e
2782:(
2761:)
2757:(
2717:)
2713:(
2668:)
2664:(
2633:h
2629:i
2625:e
2621:ā
2617:â
2584:.
2562:y
2554:g
2526:(
2510:h
2506:h
2458:.
2438:h
2379:g
2369:.
2357:(
2345:.
2323:g
2279:i
2275:e
2234:h
2226:h
2220:(
2193:(
2156:x
2138:.
2120:k
2114:(
2108:c
2074:i
2072:c
1982:.
1939:c
1821:w
1815:(
1813:u
1811:/
1809:v
1786:w
1778:w
1750:u
1746:v
1742:u
1738:v
1733:.
1731:f
1723:v
1719:w
1715:r
1711:l
1707:v
1703:u
1681:v
1629:b
1582:.
1557:.
1541:.
1498:h
1493:h
1425:.
1305:.
1252:.
1228:l
1207:j
1199:r
1194:ʋ
1182:h
1177:ɣ
1167:ʃ
1165:(
1160:s
1154:f
1127:(
1109:k
1099:d
1095:t
1090:b
1086:p
1063:n
1058:m
503:(
259:)
255:(
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