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technology was not available for decades after the construction had finished. As an effect, stairs and pathways became crooked. Moreover, shelling by U.S. troops at the end of the war had left damages to the rear side of the monument not addressed during the time of
Communist rule. In addition, the effects of nature and pollution had blackened the outside of the structure significantly. Until the 1990s, no significant efforts were made to renovate the monument. In 2003, with funding available, such measures finally started, with a target completion end date of 2013, the 200th anniversary of the battle. The black discolouring of the façade was gradually removed. The pavement in front of the monument was relaid, while a large shell hole dating from World War II was patched up. Not all war damage was removed however, deliberately leaving open some signs of bullets and shell splinters as a reminder. A new drainage system was integrated into the structure to safeguard the building from future water damage. The monument was also made wheel-chair accessible for the first time through the addition of a lift. While some work could not be finished until 2013, the work on the exterior reflection pool was finished in 2018. Some more restoration is still set to be completed as of 2019.
798:, as was a total of about 90 per cent of the entire monument. Concrete, a relatively new material at the time, was used for the first time in such a large structure. Proponents in expert literature argued for an iron construction as granting more stability, but the factors of cost and higher creative freedom ultimately led to the use of concrete. Work on the foundations alone took five years. In total, 26,500 granite blocks and 120,000 cubic metres (160,000 cu yd) of concrete were used for the entire structure. Due to the use of state-of-the-art machineries, such as traction engines, lifts, a concrete mixer, and a cable railway for transporting gravel, construction was finished on schedule, in time for the 100th anniversary of the battle in 1913. The financing, which had originally been thought to rely solely on donations and a lottery, ran out, leading the city of Leipzig to subsidise the remaining costs. The
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1006:(Hall of Fame) on the second floor, four large sculptures are placed facing each other, each meant to symbolise an alleged virtue of the German people (bravery, strength of faith, people's strength, and sacrifice). Each of these sculptures is 9.5 m (10.4 yd) tall. Towering above the crypt is a 68 m (74 yd) high dome. Leading towards it, pillared windows are decorated with 96 smaller sculptures representing the suffering in war. The dome itself is filled with "324 almost life-sized equestrian statues representing the homecoming of the victors". The dome, 29 m (32 yd) in diameter, creates unusual acoustics which allow for concerts to take place within the inner hall. From the crypt, 364 steps lead visitors to the observation platform on top of the monument.
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777:, won fourth prize with a design of a round tower with a dome on top. The Patriotic Association was again not convinced of the winning design and contemplated a third round, but in order not to lose more time, eventually decided to give the commission to Schmitz, who was the most well-respected German architect of the time. While Schmitz was the principal architect, Thieme took great influence on the design, leading to the monument having a distinctive character from Schmitz' earlier work. Schmitz delivered a new design in June 1897, which resembled the final result. This was approved by the Patriotic Association on 18 October 1897 and then presented to
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531:, were outlawed, and commemoration of the Battle of Leipzig subsided over the following years. In the 1840s, the "Association for the Celebration of October 19" was established in Leipzig, partly reviving the remembrance of the event, however, only the anniversaries in 1838 and 1863 were "forcefully expressed". In 1863, for the battle's 50th anniversary, the city of Leipzig put up large festivities, inviting representatives from 200 German cities and several hundred veterans. The celebrations included nationalistic songs and the reading of poems, with between 25,000 and 30,000 people in attendance.
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471:, a leading liberal and nationalistic writer, called for a commemoration of the battle throughout Germany. The anniversary on 19 October should be marked by festivities with "burning fires, festive 'folk' clothing, oak wreaths, and the ringing of bells". In fact, the first anniversary of the battle was marked by celebrations across the German countries, including bonfires. However, in some territories such as
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emperor and "as expressions of the people's hopes for better times". At the top of the monument, of the outside of the dome roof, stand twelve warrior statues, each composed of 47 granite blocks and 13 m (14 yd) tall, meant to remind of the
Germans' will to defend themselves. In the inaugural text about the monument, these statues were described as "guardians of freedom and pillars of justice".
1376:. Thousands of people assembled in Leipzig, leading parades through the city towards the monument. Equally, ten years later, in 1963, the anniversary was marked with a big event, joined by regiments of the Soviet army, highlighting the propaganda value of the monument and the Battle of Leipzig for a German-Russian alliance. Additional events were held at the monument, such as a celebration of the
416:. The Battle of the Nations was fought between France and their German allies against a coalition of Russian, Austrian, Prussian, and Swedish forces. About half a million soldiers were involved and at the end of the battle, around 110,000 men had lost their lives, with many more dying in the days after in field hospitals in and around the city. The scope of the fighting was unprecedented.
1385:. Towards the end of the 1980s, the monument more and more lost its character as a political site, as more entertainment-focused events were held, such as athletic competitions and concerts. During the last major anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig in 1988, the focus of the event, attended by around 100,000 people, was on the horrors of war and the need for peace.
452:), as they became known in Germany, soon established a controversial and divided culture of remembrance. For liberal thinkers and young, educated students, many of whom had fought in the wars, they resembled a starting point for a potential German unification into a national state. This sentiment was embodied in the mythologization of the
1181:. As the war neared its end, the focus of events shifted more towards the monument's original intention. Instead of remembrance for the fallen of a battle one hundred years prior, it now became a site for grieving of the recent dead on the battlefield, such as during a large church service for remembrance of the fallen on 24 June 1918.
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forces into the city. Until 1863, seven memorial stones were also placed to mark decisive points of the battle, which still remain to this day. In the same year, on the 50th anniversary of the Battle of
Leipzig, city officials also funded the restoration of the monument they had erected in 1845. During the same festivities, a
559:" ("A Word on the Celebration of the Battle of Leipzig"), he demanded that it "has to be constructed in such a way that it can be seen from all the streets around from which the allied armies moved to the bloody decisive battle. If it is to be seen, it has to be large and splendid – like a collosus, a pyramid, a
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Schmitz constructed the monument over an artificial hill and selected a pyramidal shape for a clear view of the surroundings. The base is 124 metres (407 ft) square. The main structure, at 91 metres (299 ft), is as of 2013 still the tallest monument in Europe. Poser places the monument in a
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A ground-breaking ceremony was held prior to the start of construction on 18 October 1898, the 85th anniversary of the battle. A total of 82,000 cubic metres (107,000 cu yd) of earth were moved in the following two years until suitable subsoil for the foundation was found. Construction then
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of the time, as the architects attempted to develop a distinctly German style in architecture and sculpture. A "multitude of symbols and metaphors", as Poser writes, "makes a clear characterisation of the
Monument difficult even today." Many of the sculptures reflect the masonic ideas of the members
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regiments, volunteer fighters against the French rule. On the other side, the monarchs of the German states as well as conservatives highlighted the role the princes had played in the struggle against
Napoleon, seeing a growing desire for a German national state as an attack on their royal and noble
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The annual celebrations of the Battle of
Leipzig continued under Nazi rule, now accompanied by representation of the army, police, and the SA. This included a large event for the 125th anniversary in 1938, which was advertised with a weeks-long advertisement campaign that drew a direct line between
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close to the burned out church in
Probstheida. Attached to it was a collection box for donations in order to rebuild the church. Originally envisioned by both the citizens of Leipzig as well as the Russian military command as the place for annual celebration of the battle, the cross was removed by
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At the front side of the monument, a 19 m (21 yd) high and 60 m (66 yd) wide relief depicts a battle scene. The centre piece of the relief is a sculpture of the
Archangel Saint Michael, symbolising the personification of God's support for the German soldiers. Above Michael, an
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also placed a monument in his honour at the site, in 1838. In 1843, a sandstone monument was erected at "Napoleon Hill", where the
Emperor had supposedly watched the battle. Two years later, the local government of Leipzig established another monument, commemorating the entrance of the victorious
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Schmitz also planned to create an accompanying complex for ceremonies that would include a court, a stadium and parade grounds. However, only a reflecting pool and two processional avenues were ultimately completed. Surrounding the monument are oaks, considered to have been a symbol of masculine
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carry the firebrand of war, while two eagles symbolise the "newly won freedom". On both sides of the relief, lateral staircases with 136 steps lead to the second story and the entrance of the crypt. The staircases are decorated with large heads of
Frederick I, reminding of the myth of a sleeping
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on 15 October 1967, attended by around 60,000 people. For the 160th anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig in 1973, the exhibition housed within the monument was amended, now emphasising the aspect of German-Russian collaboration even further. Around the same time, the aspect of German unity lost
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was unhappy with the results on the grounds that they were not innovative enough and none was eventually chosen for the monument. In the second round of the competition, which started in August 1896, participation was much larger, with 71 drafts submitted. The jury met to discuss on 21 and 22
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Within a year of the monument's completion, it became apparent that water penetrating the joints between the natural stone ashlars and the concrete core was a problem. Some stone pieces had moved significantly by ice and frost, while water entering the core had no way to escape, as dampening
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and the city of Leipzig erected a monument to the German unification in its centre in 1888. Steffen Poser, head of the Museum of the Monument for the Battle of the Nations, wrote: "he foundation of the German Empire deprived the monument project of what had been its basis for legitimacy so
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and in particular after the German war effort turned towards defeat in 1943, the annual celebrations became smaller and more muted. On Christmas Day 1943, the monument was for the first time used to mourn civilian deaths, as the citizens of Leipzig gathered to remember the victims of the
571:, who had died from injuries sustained in the Battle of Großgörschen, but received no support from state officials. In a letter to Arndt, Friedrich lamented in March 1814: "I am not at all surprised, that no memorials are being erected, neither to mark the great cause of the
1268:(ethnic) unity of the nation and the subservience of the individual to the collective. On 16 July 1933, the Nazi Party held their first big rally at the monument, culminating in a speech by Hitler. On 10 June 1934, the now state party organised a rally in support of the
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architecture. The monument is said to stand on the spot of some of the bloodiest fighting, from where Napoleon ordered the retreat of his army. It was also the scene of fighting in World War II, when Nazi forces in Leipzig made their last stand against U.S. troops.
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On the 18th of October 1913 the Völkerschlachtdenkmal was inaugurated in the presence of about 100,000 people including the Emperor, and all the reigning sovereign rulers of the German states. At the time of completion, it was the tallest monument in Europe.
1214:. The Association thereby closely associated the monument with nationalistic tendencies within the Republic. On 27 April 1924 for instance, the Association of German Patriots hosted a celebration for the 40th anniversary of the foundation of the now lost
620:, bearing the names of twelve battles fought against the French. Its inscription, "From the king to the people who, at his call, nobly sacrificed their blood and chattels to the Fatherland", highlighted the role of the monarch over that of the people.
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in Berlin situated on it. On the other side of the political spectrum, the nobleman Adolph von Seckendorff put forward the plan for a simple monument to the Saxon government, which would bear an inscription reading "To the liberation of a strong land,
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commenced in mid-September 1900, at which time the original cornerstone from 1863 was moved to the new location. The foundation slab, 70 m (77 yd) times 80 m (87 yd) in area and 2 m (2.2 yd) thick, was constructed from
1161:(national monument), with different groups projecting different symbolism onto it. At the time of its opening in 1913, the Patriotic Association declared in a publication that the monument symbolized a connection from the Wars of Liberation to "
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A first competition to find an architectural design was started in August 1895, with prizes for the best handed out. During the first round, only 32 design were handed in, with first prize going to Karl Doflein from Berlin. However, the
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who had died in the battle, was placed by his sister and Polish veterans near the battle site. After the establishment of the "Association for the Celebration of October 19", more small monuments started to be built. The family of
563:". His plans included a 60 m (200 ft) high mound surrounded by oak groves, with a large cross on top. However, lack of political will prevented such a monument of being built at the time. Arndt, together with the painter
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declared that "the victory over Napoleon was made possible 1. through the organisation of a people's army 2. through German-Russian alliance in arms", thereby drawing a connection to East Germany's alignment with the
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temporarily halted plans for a monument, since public conscience turned towards the more recent military victories. The commemoration of the Battle of Leipzig as a decisive one in German history was replaced by the
575:, nor to the manganimous deeds of great German men. As long as we remain man-servants to the princes, nothing of this sort will happen." Other people came forward with plans for a large memorial as well, including
998:) are present, symbolically standing guard, two each in front of a total of eight 6 m (6.6 yd) high death masks. The crypt was meant as a symbolic tomb for the fallen soldiers of the battle. In the
722:(Association for the History of Leipzig) learned during a meeting of the association about the past plans to build a monument. Interested in resuming the project, Thieme, who was also a member of the Apollo
1296:. One pamphlet read: "What fatefully began with the victory at Leipzig, ended in a bitter tragedy for the German People, over which the curtain was only drawn on 30 January 1933". Following the outbreak of
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The structure is 91 metres (299 ft) tall. It contains over 500 steps to a viewing platform at the top, from which there are views across the city and environs. The structure makes extensive use of
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under the command of Oberst Hans von Poncet, were holding out in the monument, but after a direct artillery hit inside the structure, von Poncet was convinced to surrender following long negotiations.
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strength and endurance to the Germanic people of antiquity. The oaks are complemented by evergreens, symbolising feminine fecundity, and they are located in a subordinate position to the oaks.
1312:) position was established on top of the monument. When the US Army captured Leipzig on April 18, 1945, the monument was the last stronghold in the city to surrender. 300 soldiers, men of the
505:. Taking place at the Hasenheide, a park outside Berlin, the event was attended by several tens of thousands of people. Similar celebrations were held the following years. These included the
1206:, the monument was still controlled by the Association of German Patriots, who restricted who was allowed to use it and how. Ideologically, the Association was most closely linked with the
1222:(Imperial Day of the Warrior), celebrating German veterans and the fallen soldiers of the World War. The last big event during the Weimar years came from 18 to 20 September 1932, when the
738:(Association of German Patriots) which raised, by means of donations and a lottery, the funds necessary to construct the monument for the 100th anniversary. The projected cost was set at
214:, also known as the Battle of the Nations. Paid for mostly by donations and the city of Leipzig, it was completed in 1913 for the 100th anniversary of the battle at a cost of six million
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389:. However, due to lack of training in his newly recruited soldiers, Napoleon was unable to take full advantage of his victories, allowing his enemies to regroup. Following a
393:, Austria rejoined the Coalition on 17 August. The French advantage in numbers was now reversed, with the Coalition forces counting 490,000 soldiers to Napoleon's 440,000.
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865:. Following Behrens' death in 1905, Metzner completed the work, mainly on the sculptures on the inside and top of the monument. When Behrens died, the sculpture of
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and others. Steffen Poser described the monument in the interwar years as a site used mainly by institutions working against the democratic, republican system.
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674:, pledged money for its construction. A competition for the design of a bigger monument was also started for the anniversary, without success. However, the
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in 1989 and 1990, the monument has largely lost its character as a site for political and historic events and now serves mainly as a tourist attraction.
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in Leipzig's city parliament, proposed the project during a meeting and gained the support of his fellow masons. Later that same year, he founded the
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proposed a fortress to be built outside Leipzig, at the top of which a pyramid was to be placed, with the quadriga that Napoleon had taken from the
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1352:(SED), quickly moved to change the monument's symbolism: the East German state was pictured as the continuation of a free, unified Germany while
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1276:. Just one week later, on 17 June 1934, the monument served as the site of a service attended by around 50,000 Christians, who under the lead of
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1218:. Alongside the annual celebration surrounding the anniversary on the Battle of Leipzig, in October 1925, the monument hosted the first German
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in August 1898, where it won a prize. Several more design changes, especially to the top of the building, were made in the followings years.
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6,000,000 (€32,904,393 in 2024). The following year, the city of Leipzig donated a 40,000-square-metre (9.9-acre) site for the construction.
1305:. In 1944, the celebration of the anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig was called off altogether, as the Allied forces advanced on Germany.
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was laid on 13 May 1912 by Thieme. Final works were done over the remaining year, including a late decision to add glass windows around the
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Silesia and Central European Nationalisms: The Emergence of National and Ethnic Groups in Prussian Silesia and Austrian Silesia, 1848-1918
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In 1953, the East German government hosted a large celebration of the 140th anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig, at the cost of 680,000
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2669:(1996). "The Wars of Liberation in Prussian Memory: Reflections on the Memorialization of War in Early Nineteenth-Century Germany".
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for a future grand monument was placed by Leipig's mayor Karl Wilhelm Otto Koch, and 23 cities from all around Germany, including
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was the decisive one in the war, cementing the French defeat and temporarily ending Napoleon's rule. The Emperor was exiled to
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Das Völki, wie das Denkmal von der Bevölkerung Leipzigs gern genannt wird, ist Anziehungspunkt von Touristen aus aller Welt.
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On the first anniversary of the battle, in 1814, a 18 m (59 ft) tall wooden cross was placed as a monument on the
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Bartetzky, Arnold. "Befreiungskriege und Völkerschlacht in der visuellen Erinnerungskultur des Deutschen Kaiserreichs". In
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line of tradition of similar national monuments of the 19th century. The design deviates consciously from the style of the
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The architectural style of the monument was immediately divisive even among contemporaries. While commentators from the
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The Year 1813, East Central Europe and Leipzig. The Battle of the Nations as a (trans)national place of remembrance
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Shortly after the Battle of Leipzig, Arndt called for a monument to be built at the site. In a pamphlet entitled "
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in March 1813. During the early part of the campaign, the allied forces against Napoleon suffered defeats at
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1128:-nationalistic side hailed it as a major artistic achievement, people from the political left, like
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Topfstedt, Thomas. "Das Leipziger Völkerschlachtsdenkmal: Eine kurze Ideen- und Baugeschichte". In
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Das Jahr 1813, Ostmitteleuropa und Leipzig. Die Völkerschlacht als (trans)nationaler Erinnerungsort
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After World War II during the time of the separation of Germany, Leipzig was part of the Socialist
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Tebbe, Jason (2010). "Revision and "Rebirth": Commemoration of the Battle of Nations in Leipzig".
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Poser, Steffen. "Zur Rezeptionsgeschichte des Völkerschlachtsdenkmals zwischen 1914 und 1989". In
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Originally intended by the Association of German Patriots as a symbol for the achievement of
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on top, symbolising the victory of Germany against France, the "modern Rome". The architect
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2099:[The Monument to the Battle of the Nations, on the Dumping Ground of History].
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2043:[Monument to the Battle of the Nations in Leipzig: Pyramid of the Patriot].
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the following year, before being permanently banished following his defeat at the
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on 18 October 1814. Events such as this took place in all of Germany on that day.
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under the title Napoleon I since 1804. Over the course of the hostilities, the
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importance, as a two-state solution was preferred under the new leadership of
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against the French and their German allies. Following Napoleon's unsuccessful
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View from inside the crypt with the guarding warriors and death masks visible
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The Politics of Sociability: Freemasonry and German Civil Society, 1840–1918
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In the circle-shaped crypt on the first floor, sixteen statues of warriors (
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30 January 1933 was the day on which Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor.
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The Battle of the Nations at Leipzig: Europe's Battle Against Napoleon
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In the immediate aftermath, both the Battle of Leipzig as well as the
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Stadtgeschichtliches Museum Leipzig (City-Historical Museum Leipzig)
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style elements, instead borrowing from the architecture of ancient
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annexed by France, as well as troops from his German allies of the
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2444:"Last Stand at Völkerschlachtdenkmal: The Battle of Leipzig, 1945"
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in 1809 had ended with another defeat for the joint forces of the
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Training Socialist Citizens: Sports and the State in East Germany
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throughout the 19th century, the monument was soon accepted as a
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Picture of the sculpture representing "People's strength" in the
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The cornerstone, laid down in 1863, in a drawing from around 1880
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at Leipzig, a crucial step towards the end of hostilities in the
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From Monuments to Traces: Artifacts of German Memory, 1870-1990
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December of the same year, with first prize this time going to
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Remembrance of the Battle of the Nations between 1813 and 1871
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for approval. In August, the design was presented during the
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was the first to propose a large monument on the site of the
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joined the countries already at war with France to begin the
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Die Völkerschlacht bei Leipzig: Europas Kampf gegen Napoleon
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1813: The Battle of the Nations and the End of the Old World
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National Monuments and Nationalism in 19th Century Germany
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2041:"Völkerschlachtdenkmal in Leipzig: Pyramide des Patrioten"
2194:
1875:
1707:
517:
as well as the Battle of Leipzig. However, following the
432:
on the first anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig at the
2304:
2206:
2143:
2061:
2020:
1993:
1966:
1951:
1939:
1890:
1848:
1816:
1804:
1775:
1751:
1680:
1665:
1495:
1057:
Detail of the sculpture representing "Strength of faith"
535:
First proposals for a monument at the site of the battle
291:
The War of the Sixth Coalition and the Battle of Leipzig
2277:
2078:
2076:
1902:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1643:
1641:
1628:
1626:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1570:
1443:, inspired by the Monument to the Battle of the Nations
1144:
Reception and usage of the monument through the decades
1030:
Detailed view of guarding warriors next to a death mask
968:
View of the guardian statues on the outside of the dome
277:. It is widely regarded as one of the best examples of
2561:
2513:
2501:
2489:
2403:
2379:
2367:
2355:
2331:
2253:
2243:
2241:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2182:
2158:
2131:
2121:
2119:
1081:
Details of the horse statues on the inside of the dome
924:
Detail of a horse on the left side of the front relief
2867:
Public Monuments: Art in Political Bondage, 1870-1997
2471:[The Monument to the Battle of the Nations].
2008:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1697:
1695:
1095:
View of the monument and the adjacent reflecting pool
483:, they were incorporated into the festivities around
2886:
1813: Die Völkerschlacht und das Ende der Alten Welt
2549:
2537:
2292:
2097:"Völkerschlachtdenkmal, auf den Müll der Geschichte"
2073:
1863:
1792:
1763:
1739:
1722:
1653:
1638:
1623:
1606:
1594:
2525:
2391:
2343:
2319:
2265:
2238:
2221:
2116:
1582:
1558:
1534:
1522:
1510:
1325:
688:far—namely, the desire for German unification, the
527:, the nationalistic student groups, as well as the
2928:Monument to the Battle of the Nations: Short Guide
2843:
2808:Keller, Katrin; Schmid, Hans-Dieter, eds. (1995).
1831:
1692:
1256:Following the rise of the Nazi Party to power and
1148:
869:, the relief of the battle scene and the heads of
509:in 1817, a nationalistic event commemorating both
479:, such celebrations were prohibited, while in the
2816:] (in German). Leipziger Universitätsverlag.
1546:
1177:or celebrations of the birthday of Field Marshal
3097:
2423:"Kalenderblatt: 19.4.1945 – Das letzte Aufgebot"
1251:
827:Outside view of the front of the monument (2014)
334:had ceased to exist following the abdication of
880:
557:Ein Wort ĂĽber die Feier der Leipziger Schlacht
2741:
2732:
2707:
936:View of the relief from the right side, with
501:movement, gymnastic clubs led by nationalist
2832:
2807:
2708:Dmitrieva, Marina; Karl, Lars, eds. (2016).
2614:"The Voortrekker Monument: Monolith to Myth"
2200:
1288:), pledged allegiance to the Nazi movement.
1155:German unity after a long period of struggle
1000:
992:
885:
732:
716:
495:, the main celebration was organised by the
385:(20–21 May), being driven back to the river
2911:. New German-American Studies. Peter Lang.
2716:] (in German). Cologne: Böhlau Verlag.
1922:"The Völkerschlachtdenkmal and its History"
1136:'s design for a new parliament building in
612:was erected in Berlin in 1821. Designed by
342:from various former members of the Empire.
322:had taken control of the country, first as
3111:Buildings and structures completed in 1913
2906:
1884:
1716:
1504:
1388:
1349:Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands
34:
2883:
2864:
2788:
2739:
2730:
2639:
2313:
2286:
2215:
2152:
2067:
2038:
2026:
2002:
1987:
1975:
1960:
1945:
1857:
1825:
1786:
1686:
1346:, or East Germany. The ruling party, the
813:
2750:
1908:
1408:
1329:
1183:
1102:
1090:
822:
701:
622:
538:
423:
294:
221:The monument commemorates the defeat of
3061:"Homepage of the choir of the Monument"
3033:"Homepage of the monument's supporters"
3018:"Monument to the Battle of the Nations"
2944:
2769:
2611:
2176:
2094:
1914:
706:The monument under construction in 1912
694:, which had been missing at the time."
3098:
3049:"Homepage of the annual bathtub races"
2995:] (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck.
2986:
2841:
2441:
2298:
2082:
1769:
1757:
1540:
1528:
1516:
1413:The monument during restoration (2011)
1308:During the war, an anti-aircraft gun (
1303:bombing of the city on 4 December 1943
2963:
2925:
2830:
2665:
2567:
2555:
2543:
2531:
2519:
2507:
2495:
2442:Haskew, Michael E. (4 October 2020).
2409:
2397:
2385:
2373:
2361:
2349:
2337:
2325:
2271:
2259:
2247:
2232:
2188:
2164:
2137:
2125:
2014:
1896:
1869:
1842:
1810:
1798:
1745:
1733:
1701:
1674:
1659:
1647:
1632:
1617:
1600:
1588:
1576:
1564:
1552:
1338:in the shadow of the monument in 1953
1274:referendum held the following January
895:" . To either side of the archangel,
678:and the subsequent foundation of the
655:Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg
255:Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg
173:Monument to the Battle of the Nations
3146:Art Nouveau sculptures and memorials
2088:
1272:rejoining Germany in advance of the
396:Between 16 and 19 October 1813, the
3141:Art Nouveau architecture in Germany
3121:Buildings and structures in Leipzig
2039:von RĂĽpke, Marc (18 October 2013).
1926:Stadtgeschichtliches Museum Leipzig
610:monument for the Wars of Liberation
13:
3131:Monuments and memorials in Germany
3069:"7 panorama views and information"
2850:. University of California Press.
1107:In the background can be seen the
806:to safeguard it from the weather.
718:Verein fĂĽr die Geschichte Leipzigs
14:
3172:
3010:
2770:Johnson, Molly Wilkinson (2008).
318:against its European neighbours.
20:Monument to the Battle of Nations
3126:Military monuments and memorials
2755:. University of Michigan Press.
2751:Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig (2007).
2619:South African Historical Journal
1326:Under Communist rule (1945–1989)
1074:
1062:
1050:
1035:
1023:
1011:
985:
973:
961:
945:
929:
917:
905:
2659:
2605:
2573:
2461:
2435:
2415:
2095:Reichel, Peter (13 July 2013).
2032:
1460:
1149:World War I and Weimar Republic
1086:
787:GroĂźe Berliner Kunstausstellung
697:
3136:Tourist attractions in Leipzig
3106:1913 establishments in Germany
2945:Sembach, Klaus-JĂĽrgen (2002).
1480:
1404:
1:
3151:Outdoor sculptures in Germany
2672:The Journal of Modern History
1473:
1252:Nazi Germany and World War II
1230:Evangelical Church in Germany
487:'s jubilee on 23 October. In
40:The monument at night in 2015
2987:Thamer, Hans-Ulrich (2013).
2865:Michalski, Sergiusz (1998).
2477:(in German). 18 October 2018
2469:"Das Völkerschlachtsdenkmal"
1334:Historic reenactment of the
1119:
650:Marshal of the French Empire
430:Emperor Francis I of Austria
16:Monument in Leipzig, Germany
7:
3051:(in German). Archived from
3039:(in German). Archived from
2930:. Leipzig: Passage-Verlag.
2884:Platthaus, Andreas (2015).
2793:. Purdue University Press.
2742:Dmitrieva & Karl (2016)
2733:Dmitrieva & Karl (2016)
2612:Delmont, Elizabeth (1993).
1421:
1270:Territory of the Saar Basin
1188:The centenary event of the
881:Description of the Monument
567:, worked on a monument for
10:
3177:
3161:War of the Sixth Coalition
2869:. London: Reaktion Books.
2833:Keller & Schmid (1995)
2789:Kamusella, Tomasz (2007).
1492:, retrieved March 26, 2014
1358:Confederation of the Rhine
1344:German Democratic Republic
375:War of the Sixth Coalition
347:War of the Fifth Coalition
340:Confederation of the Rhine
326:from 1799, and reigned as
285:
263:Confederation of the Rhine
233:. The coalition armies of
231:War of the Sixth Coalition
2907:Pohlsander, Hans (2008).
2632:10.1080/02582479308671763
886:Exterior of the structure
710:In 1894, Clemens Thieme (
644:. In 1817, a monument to
410:briefly returned to power
273:, and the facings are of
190:, sometimes shortened to
159:
151:
143:
135:
127:
119:
111:
101:
83:
49:
45:
33:
24:
2474:Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk
2201:Keller & Schmid 1995
1453:
1292:the Napoleonic Wars and
1216:German overseas colonies
818:
2926:Poser, Steffen (2014).
2591:Deutsche Presse-Agentur
2448:Warfare History Network
2179:, pp. 28 & 38.
1389:The monument since 1989
980:Close-up of the statues
867:Archangel Saint Michael
614:Karl Friedrich Schinkel
569:Gerhard von Scharnhorst
139:91 metres (299 ft)
131:70 metres (230 ft)
123:80 metres (260 ft)
3037:Voelkerschlachtdenkmal
1414:
1339:
1228:, a society under the
1195:
1116:
1096:
1001:
993:
956:next to the staircases
828:
814:Design of the Monument
734:Deutsche Patriotenbund
733:
728:National Liberal Party
717:
707:
676:Unification of Germany
628:
565:Caspar David Friedrich
552:
441:
307:
299:A painting by Russian
185:
115:Granite-faced concrete
2967:German Studies Review
2842:Koshar, Rudy (2000).
1412:
1333:
1262:Chancellor of Germany
1208:German People's Party
1187:
1106:
1094:
826:
705:
626:
589:Friedrich Weinbrenner
543:Historian and writer
542:
503:Friedrich Ludwig Jahn
491:, the capital of the
427:
398:Battle of the Nations
328:Emperor of the French
305:Battle of the Nations
298:
251:Alexander I of Russia
187:Völkerschlachtdenkmal
68:51.31222°N 12.41306°E
27:Völkerschlachtdenkmal
3027:(Quicktime required)
2810:Vom Kult zur Kulisse
1449:in Wrocław (Breslau)
1433:Voortrekker Monument
1399:German reunification
1212:Treaty of Versailles
1194:on 18 September 1932
1069:Dome of the memorial
952:One of the heads of
726:and represented the
3073:Virtualcity Leipzig
2814:The cult of scenery
2744:, pp. 137–155.
2735:, pp. 123–134.
1990:, pp. 141–144.
1899:, pp. 624–625.
1813:, pp. 622–623.
1677:, pp. 623–624.
1579:, pp. 619–620.
1428:Kyffhäuser Monument
1395:Peaceful Revolution
1225:Gustav-Adolf-Verein
1191:Gustav-Adolf-Verein
1179:Paul von Hindenburg
940:inscription visible
871:Emperor Frederick I
861:and his apprentice
761:Kyffhäuser Monument
714:), a member of the
581:August von Kotzebue
428:A celebration with
314:, France had waged
202:) is a monument in
144:Beginning date
64: /
21:
3156:Statues in Germany
2835:, pp. 78–104.
2667:Clark, Christopher
1760:, pp. 99–100.
1487:leipzig-sachsen.de
1415:
1378:October Revolution
1340:
1294:National Socialism
1260:'s appointment as
1196:
1117:
1097:
873:, better known as
829:
708:
642:Congress of Vienna
629:
553:
545:Ernst Moritz Arndt
493:Kingdom of Prussia
481:Kingdom of Hanover
469:Ernst Moritz Arndt
446:Wars of Liberation
442:
414:Battle of Waterloo
367:invasion of Russia
336:Emperor Francis II
320:Napoleon Bonaparte
308:
73:51.31222; 12.41306
19:
3002:978-3-406-64610-2
2956:978-3-8228-2022-3
2937:978-3-938543-73-3
2918:978-3-03911-352-1
2899:978-3-499-62922-8
2857:978-0-520-21768-3
2823:978-3-929031-60-7
2800:978-1-55753-371-5
2762:978-0-472-11573-0
2723:978-3-412-50399-4
2570:, pp. 24–31.
2522:, pp. 97–98.
2510:, pp. 94–97.
2498:, pp. 92–94.
2412:, pp. 89–92.
2388:, pp. 86–88.
2376:, pp. 84–85.
2364:, pp. 82–83.
2340:, pp. 79–80.
2262:, pp. 15–18.
2191:, pp. 14–15.
2167:, pp. 13–14.
2140:, pp. 12–14.
1374:East German marks
1336:Battle of Leipzig
912:Archangel Michael
891:engraving reads "
859:Christian Behrens
834:Wilhelmine period
646:JĂłzef Poniatowski
638:Kingdom of Saxony
606:Friedrich Wilhelm
561:Cologne Cathedral
549:Battle of Leipzig
521:of 1819 both the
507:Wartburg Festival
408:in May 1814, but
332:Holy Roman Empire
312:French Revolution
249:were led by Tsar
212:Battle of Leipzig
169:
168:
164:Battle of Leipzig
160:Dedicated to
152:Opening date
3168:
3092:
3087:. Archived from
3076:
3064:
3056:
3044:
3028:
3025:
3006:
2983:
2960:
2941:
2922:
2903:
2880:
2861:
2849:
2836:
2827:
2804:
2785:
2766:
2745:
2736:
2727:
2704:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2643:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2577:
2571:
2565:
2559:
2553:
2547:
2541:
2535:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2431:. 19 March 2009.
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2383:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2359:
2353:
2347:
2341:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2302:
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2290:
2284:
2275:
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2245:
2236:
2230:
2219:
2213:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2174:
2168:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2092:
2086:
2080:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2054:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2017:, pp. 8–12.
2012:
2006:
2000:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1964:
1958:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1918:
1912:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1888:
1882:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1846:
1840:
1829:
1823:
1814:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1773:
1767:
1761:
1755:
1749:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1720:
1714:
1705:
1699:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1672:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1645:
1636:
1630:
1621:
1615:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1493:
1484:
1467:
1464:
1318:and boys of the
1220:Reichskriegertag
1130:Social Democrats
1078:
1066:
1054:
1039:
1027:
1015:
1004:
996:
977:
965:
949:
933:
921:
909:
736:
720:
593:Brandenburg Gate
524:Burschenschaften
519:Carlsbad Decrees
450:Befreiungskriege
316:a number of wars
303:, depicting the
180:
79:
78:
76:
75:
74:
69:
65:
62:
61:
60:
57:
38:
22:
18:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3116:1913 sculptures
3096:
3095:
3085:Waltlockley.com
3079:
3067:
3059:
3047:
3031:
3026:
3016:
3013:
3003:
2957:
2938:
2919:
2900:
2877:
2858:
2824:
2801:
2782:
2763:
2724:
2662:
2657:
2656:
2646:
2644:
2610:
2606:
2596:
2594:
2593:. 26 April 2019
2579:
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2222:
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2159:
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2093:
2089:
2081:
2074:
2066:
2062:
2052:
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2037:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1974:
1967:
1959:
1952:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1928:
1920:
1919:
1915:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1885:Pohlsander 2008
1883:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1849:
1841:
1832:
1824:
1817:
1809:
1805:
1797:
1793:
1785:
1776:
1768:
1764:
1756:
1752:
1744:
1740:
1732:
1723:
1717:Pohlsander 2008
1715:
1708:
1700:
1693:
1685:
1681:
1673:
1666:
1658:
1654:
1646:
1639:
1631:
1624:
1616:
1607:
1599:
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1575:
1571:
1563:
1559:
1551:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1527:
1523:
1515:
1511:
1505:Pohlsander 2008
1503:
1496:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1447:Centennial Hall
1424:
1407:
1391:
1362:Walter Ulbricht
1354:Konrad Adenauer
1328:
1284:(bishop of the
1254:
1204:Weimar Republic
1200:interwar period
1159:Nationaldenkmal
1151:
1146:
1122:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1070:
1067:
1058:
1055:
1046:
1040:
1031:
1028:
1019:
1016:
988:
981:
978:
969:
966:
957:
950:
941:
934:
925:
922:
913:
910:
888:
883:
821:
816:
767:as well as the
700:
685:Battle of Sedan
537:
513:'s stay at the
422:
351:Austrian Empire
293:
288:
176:
155:18 October 1913
147:18 October 1898
72:
70:
66:
63:
58:
55:
53:
51:
50:
41:
29:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3174:
3164:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3094:
3093:
3091:on 2008-11-21.
3077:
3065:
3057:
3055:on 2005-12-15.
3045:
3043:on 2009-04-23.
3029:
3012:
3011:External links
3009:
3008:
3007:
3001:
2984:
2974:(3): 618–640.
2961:
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2737:
2722:
2705:
2685:10.1086/245342
2679:(3): 550–576.
2661:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2604:
2572:
2560:
2558:, p. 102.
2548:
2546:, p. 100.
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2500:
2488:
2460:
2434:
2428:Spiegel Online
2414:
2402:
2390:
2378:
2366:
2354:
2342:
2330:
2318:
2316:, p. 133.
2314:Bartetzky 2016
2303:
2291:
2287:Michalski 1998
2276:
2264:
2252:
2237:
2220:
2218:, p. 425.
2216:Platthaus 2015
2205:
2193:
2181:
2169:
2157:
2155:, p. 424.
2153:Platthaus 2015
2142:
2130:
2115:
2087:
2072:
2070:, p. 137.
2068:Topfstedt 2016
2060:
2031:
2029:, p. 153.
2027:Topfstedt 2016
2019:
2007:
2005:, p. 145.
2003:Topfstedt 2016
1992:
1988:Topfstedt 2016
1980:
1978:, p. 423.
1976:Platthaus 2015
1965:
1963:, p. 142.
1961:Topfstedt 2016
1950:
1948:, p. 141.
1946:Topfstedt 2016
1938:
1913:
1911:, p. 122.
1901:
1889:
1887:, p. 169.
1874:
1872:, p. 624.
1862:
1860:, p. 140.
1858:Topfstedt 2016
1847:
1830:
1828:, p. 422.
1826:Platthaus 2015
1815:
1803:
1801:, p. 558.
1791:
1789:, p. 131.
1787:Bartetzky 2016
1774:
1762:
1750:
1748:, p. 559.
1738:
1736:, p. 622.
1721:
1719:, p. 168.
1706:
1691:
1689:, p. 138.
1687:Topfstedt 2016
1679:
1664:
1662:, p. 566.
1652:
1650:, p. 623.
1637:
1635:, p. 562.
1622:
1620:, p. 621.
1605:
1603:, p. 553.
1593:
1591:, p. 552.
1581:
1569:
1567:, p. 620.
1557:
1545:
1533:
1521:
1509:
1507:, p. 170.
1494:
1478:
1477:
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1458:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1444:
1430:
1423:
1420:
1406:
1403:
1393:Following the
1390:
1387:
1383:Erich Honecker
1327:
1324:
1253:
1250:
1239:Sturmabteilung
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1134:Eliel Saarinen
1121:
1118:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1073:
1071:
1068:
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1059:
1056:
1049:
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884:
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820:
817:
815:
812:
699:
696:
577:Karl Sieveking
536:
533:
421:
418:
355:United Kingdom
310:Following the
301:A.I. Zauerweid
292:
289:
287:
284:
210:, to the 1813
167:
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2589:(in German).
2588:
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2569:
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2545:
2540:
2534:, p. 99.
2533:
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2492:
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2430:
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2418:
2411:
2406:
2400:, p. 89.
2399:
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2358:
2352:, p. 81.
2351:
2346:
2339:
2334:
2328:, p. 78.
2327:
2322:
2315:
2310:
2308:
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2300:
2295:
2289:, p. 65.
2288:
2283:
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2274:, p. 18.
2273:
2268:
2261:
2256:
2250:, p. 19.
2249:
2244:
2242:
2235:, p. 15.
2234:
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2202:
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2190:
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2161:
2154:
2149:
2147:
2139:
2134:
2128:, p. 13.
2127:
2122:
2120:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2091:
2085:, p. 44.
2084:
2079:
2077:
2069:
2064:
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2047:
2042:
2035:
2028:
2023:
2016:
2011:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1989:
1984:
1977:
1972:
1970:
1962:
1957:
1955:
1947:
1942:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1910:
1909:Hoffmann 2007
1905:
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1772:, p. 98.
1771:
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1597:
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1585:
1578:
1573:
1566:
1561:
1554:
1549:
1543:, p. 43.
1542:
1537:
1531:, p. 42.
1530:
1525:
1519:, p. 30.
1518:
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1282:Reichsbischof
1279:
1278:Ludwig MĂĽller
1275:
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986:On the inside
976:
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839:Patriotenbund
835:
825:
811:
807:
805:
801:
797:
791:
789:
788:
783:
780:
776:
772:
771:
770:Deutsches Eck
766:
762:
758:
757:Bruno Schmitz
754:
753:Wilhelm Kreis
749:
748:Patriotenbund
743:
741:
737:
735:
729:
725:
724:masonic lodge
721:
719:
713:
704:
695:
693:
692:
686:
681:
680:German Empire
677:
673:
669:
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647:
643:
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633:village green
625:
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511:Martin Luther
508:
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106:Bruno Schmitz
104:
100:
97:
93:
89:
86:
82:
77:
48:
44:
37:
32:
28:
23:
3089:the original
3084:
3072:
3063:(in German).
3053:the original
3041:the original
3036:
3021:
2992:
2988:
2971:
2965:
2946:
2927:
2908:
2889:
2885:
2866:
2845:
2813:
2809:
2790:
2771:
2752:
2713:
2709:
2676:
2670:
2660:Bibliography
2645:. Retrieved
2623:
2617:
2607:
2595:. Retrieved
2584:
2575:
2563:
2551:
2539:
2527:
2515:
2503:
2491:
2479:. Retrieved
2472:
2463:
2451:. Retrieved
2447:
2437:
2426:
2417:
2405:
2393:
2381:
2369:
2357:
2345:
2333:
2321:
2294:
2267:
2255:
2203:, p. 9.
2196:
2184:
2177:Sembach 2002
2172:
2160:
2133:
2106:. Retrieved
2100:
2090:
2063:
2051:. Retrieved
2044:
2034:
2022:
2010:
1983:
1941:
1929:. Retrieved
1925:
1916:
1904:
1892:
1865:
1845:, p. 7.
1806:
1794:
1765:
1753:
1741:
1704:, p. 6.
1682:
1655:
1596:
1584:
1572:
1560:
1555:, p. 4.
1548:
1536:
1524:
1512:
1489:
1482:
1462:
1441:South Africa
1416:
1392:
1371:
1347:
1341:
1320:Hitler Youth
1313:
1307:
1298:World War II
1290:
1285:
1281:
1265:
1258:Adolf Hitler
1255:
1243:
1237:
1223:
1219:
1197:
1189:
1158:
1152:
1125:
1123:
1098:
1087:Surroundings
1043:
999:
994:Totenwächter
991:
989:
953:
938:Gott mit uns
937:
893:Gott mit uns
892:
889:
874:
838:
830:
808:
803:
792:
785:
768:
747:
744:
731:
715:
709:
698:Construction
689:
630:
572:
556:
554:
528:
522:
496:
467:
459:
453:
449:
443:
395:
381:(2 May) and
379:Großgörschen
344:
309:
267:
220:
198:
197:
192:
191:
186:
172:
170:
26:
2949:. Taschen.
2947:Art Nouveau
2647:27 December
2597:27 December
2299:Koshar 2000
2108:27 December
2083:Koshar 2000
2049:(in German)
2046:Der Spiegel
1770:Thamer 2013
1758:Thamer 2013
1541:Thamer 2013
1529:Thamer 2013
1517:Thamer 2013
1405:Restoration
1198:During the
1171:World War I
1044:Ruhmeshalle
1002:Ruhmeshalle
855:Art Nouveau
847:Mesopotamia
804:Ruhmeshalle
660:cornerstone
477:WĂĽrttemberg
465:positions.
227:French army
71: /
3100:Categories
2641:10539/7785
2626:: 76–101.
2568:Poser 2014
2556:Poser 1995
2544:Poser 1995
2532:Poser 1995
2520:Poser 1995
2508:Poser 1995
2496:Poser 1995
2410:Poser 1995
2398:Poser 1995
2386:Poser 1995
2374:Poser 1995
2362:Poser 1995
2350:Poser 1995
2338:Poser 1995
2326:Poser 1995
2272:Poser 2014
2260:Poser 2014
2248:Poser 2014
2233:Poser 2014
2189:Poser 2014
2165:Poser 2014
2138:Poser 2014
2126:Poser 2014
2015:Poser 2014
1931:August 23,
1897:Tebbe 2010
1870:Tebbe 2010
1843:Poser 2014
1811:Tebbe 2010
1799:Clark 1996
1746:Clark 1996
1734:Tebbe 2010
1702:Poser 2014
1675:Tebbe 2010
1660:Clark 1996
1648:Tebbe 2010
1633:Clark 1996
1618:Tebbe 2010
1601:Clark 1996
1589:Clark 1996
1577:Tebbe 2010
1565:Tebbe 2010
1553:Poser 2014
1474:References
1315:Volkssturm
1242:(SA), the
1234:Nazi Party
1167:Versailles
954:Barbarossa
875:Barbarossa
857:sculptors
843:classicist
782:Wilhelm II
585:Iron Cross
485:George III
279:Wilhelmine
59:12°24′47″E
56:51°18′44″N
2701:143695987
1245:Stahlhelm
1175:war bonds
1140:in 1912.
1120:Reception
765:Thuringia
691:leitmotif
618:Kreuzberg
598:Alexander
455:Freikorps
391:ceasefire
369:in 1812,
216:goldmarks
199:Schlachti
178:‹See Tfd›
2980:20787996
2586:Die Welt
2481:18 March
2453:17 March
2102:Die Welt
1437:Pretoria
1422:See also
1266:völkisch
1138:Canberra
1126:völkisch
1111:and the
800:keystone
796:concrete
515:Wartburg
461:Landwehr
400:outside
363:Portugal
271:concrete
223:Napoleon
112:Material
102:Designer
84:Location
2693:2946767
1202:of the
837:of the
779:Emperor
775:Koblenz
672:Dresden
668:Hanover
640:at the
529:Turners
402:Leipzig
383:Bautzen
371:Prussia
286:History
275:granite
243:Austria
239:Prussia
208:Germany
204:Leipzig
96:Germany
88:Leipzig
2999:
2978:
2953:
2934:
2915:
2896:
2873:
2854:
2820:
2797:
2778:
2759:
2720:
2699:
2691:
2053:24 May
897:furies
670:, and
664:Vienna
604:, and
498:Turner
489:Berlin
438:Vienna
434:Prater
361:, and
324:Consul
247:Sweden
235:Russia
182:German
136:Height
120:Length
92:Saxony
2991:[
2976:JSTOR
2888:[
2812:[
2712:[
2697:S2CID
2689:JSTOR
1454:Notes
1286:Reich
1163:Sedan
851:Egypt
819:Style
602:Franz
473:Baden
359:Spain
259:Rhine
193:Völki
128:Width
2997:ISBN
2951:ISBN
2932:ISBN
2913:ISBN
2894:ISBN
2871:ISBN
2852:ISBN
2818:ISBN
2795:ISBN
2776:ISBN
2757:ISBN
2718:ISBN
2649:2020
2599:2020
2483:2021
2455:2022
2110:2020
2055:2015
1933:2011
1397:and
1367:USSR
1310:Flak
1165:and
849:and
648:, a
579:and
573:Volk
475:and
458:and
406:Elba
387:Elbe
345:The
253:and
245:and
171:The
2681:doi
2636:hdl
2628:doi
1435:in
1236:'s
773:in
763:in
436:in
225:'s
196:or
3102::
3083:.
3071:.
3035:.
3020:.
2972:33
2970:.
2695:.
2687:.
2677:68
2675:.
2634:.
2624:29
2622:.
2616:.
2446:.
2425:.
2306:^
2279:^
2240:^
2223:^
2208:^
2145:^
2118:^
2075:^
1995:^
1968:^
1953:^
1924:.
1877:^
1850:^
1833:^
1818:^
1777:^
1724:^
1709:^
1694:^
1667:^
1640:^
1625:^
1608:^
1497:^
1439:,
1369:.
1280:,
755:.
712:de
666:,
600:,
357:,
353:,
265:.
241:,
237:,
218:.
206:,
184::
94:,
90:,
3075:.
3024:.
3005:.
2982:.
2959:.
2940:.
2921:.
2902:.
2879:.
2860:.
2826:.
2803:.
2784:.
2765:.
2726:.
2703:.
2683::
2651:.
2638::
2630::
2601:.
2485:.
2457:.
2112:.
2057:.
1935:.
1115:.
740:â„ł
551:.
448:(
175:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
