475:
895:
25:
742:
84:
917:
486:
903:
661:. The basin at the Mérida amphitheatre, at only 1.5 meters, was shallower than that at Verona. Because it is so shallow—less than the height of a standing man—it cannot be confused with an underground service room. This basin was equipped with access stairs and covered with material similar to that used for swimming pools and
367:
see that to achieve the number of 3000 men the vessels of
Augustus' fleet would have to have held more combatants than an actual fleet. The spectacle thus focused less on the movement of the vessels, and more on their actual presence in the artificial basin and the hand-to-hand combat which developed.
1128:
rivers, fought between an
English ship and two Turkish galleys. After the victory, some Turkish captives (played by actors) were presented to her and she laughed at this, saying both the actors' costumes and their "countenances" were like the Turks. The entertainment at Bristol was described in verse
829:
at the site are taken into consideration, it still existed into the 5th century. Moreover, the presence of bleachers on its perimeter is a strong indicator of regular shows. According to the Ostia municipal records, the inauguration involved 127 pairs of gladiators; leading one to believe that as in
366:
Taking into consideration the size of the basin and the dimensions of a trireme (approximately 35 Ă— 4.90 meters), the thirty vessels used would hardly be able to manoeuvre. Knowing that the crew of a Roman trireme was approximately 170 rowers and 50 to 60 soldiers, a simple calculation allows us to
711:
were spaced about 50 years apart; the following six, most of which took place in amphitheatres, occurred in a space of 30 years. Less costly in material and human terms, they could afford to be staged more frequently. Less grandiose, they became a feature of the games, but could not be considered
596:
in the
Colosseum could therefore not have been as grand as the previous ones. One can imagine a confrontation between the crews of several reproductions of warships, potentially life-size or reasonably close to it, but actual maneuvers or even floating seems doubtful. It is known that stage-props
297:
for that of
Claudius. It required significantly greater resources than other such entertainments, and as such these spectacles were reserved for exceptional occasions, closely tied to celebrations of the emperor, his victories and his monuments. The specific nature of the spectacle as well as the
652:
The central pit of the Verona amphitheatre was deeper than the rooms normally found underneath the arena, and served as a basin. It was connected to two axial conduits. One, circulating under the West gallery of the arena, was not connected to the drainage system and had to be connected to an
894:
239:
is closely tied and only slightly earlier than that other spectacle, "group combat", which did not pit single combatants against one another, but rather used two small armies. There again, the combatants were frequently those sentenced to death and lacked the specialized training of true
210:, to celebrate the completion of drainage work and tunneling on the site. It included one hundred ships and 19,000 combatants, all of whom were prisoners who had been condemned to death. Suetonius' account, written many years after the event, has them salute the emperor with the phrase
621:; they would have been filled and drained rapidly enough for use in gladiatorial combats and other spectacles. The rapid transition between water shows and earth-based shows seems to have been one of the great attractions. Dio Cassius underscores this as it relates to Nero's
830:
the amphitheatre, the restrictive space at Trajan's basin was not conducive to large combats involving many untrained prisoners, or would have required over-simplification of naval combats, leading to a preference for single combat. In this form, and with a dedicated site,
537:
in 64 AD. This was preceded by hunts and followed by gladiatorial combat and a great banquet (Dio
Cassius, LXII, 15, 1). It is unknown what form these games took. It was probably the same wooden amphitheatre, given that there is no mention of its destruction before the
796:, with some sources erroneously calling it the Circus of Hadrian due to the similarities of its shape to that of other excavated circuses, along with the site's proximity to the Mausoleum of Hadrian. Subsequent digs have revealed the complete site plan. It had
474:
641:, XXIV). The only surviving written sources offer no descriptions of the mechanisms or engineering involved. Archaeology provides no clues: the basement of the Colosseum has since been modified. Only two provincial amphitheatres, those at
674:: the one at MĂ©rida measures a mere 18.5 Ă— 3.7 meters. Only the most modest of water spectacles could have taken place here. This leads one to conclude that, even assuming that the Colosseum had a similar basin before construction of the
836:
could easily have continued (though likely at a reducing frequency) for several centuries without mention in sources, as they would not have been particularly worthy of mention: they simply lost their grandeur and impressive character.
1129:
by Robert Naile, who mentions the Turks were played by sailors, "worthy brutes, who oft have seen their habit, form and guise". They were made to kneel before Anne of
Denmark and beg for mercy as the final act of the pageant.
1279:"Orazio Scarabelli | Naumachia in the Court of Palazzo Pitti, from an Album with Plates documenting the Festivities of the 1589 Wedding of Arch Duke Ferdinand I de' Medici and Christine of Lorraine"
461:(sacred forest of the Caesars), later renamed "forest of Gaius and Lucius" for the grandsons of Augustus (Dion Cassius, 66, 25, 3). This vast area was probably built upon by the end of the 1st century.
233:
was thus a bloodier show than gladiatorial combat, which consisted of smaller engagements and where the combat did not necessarily end with the death of the losers. More exactly, the appearance of
1238:, Claudius, 21, 1214 and a century later, by Cassius Dio, 60, 33, 3‑4, who referred to the same event and probably used Suetonius or a now lost common source. Suetonius gives Claudius' reply as
193:
based on Caesar's model. This naumachia depicted a battle between the Greeks and the
Persians and required a basin that was 400 by 600 yards, which was created straddling the Tiber.
1101:
335:
was probably a simple basin dug into the low-lying ground on the northern or southern banks of the Tiber, and fed by its waters; the exact location is unknown; most likely
1022:
water feature, surrounded by a colonnade. In 18th and 19th century
England, several parks featured mock naval battles with model ships, which were also referred to as
384:. Lake Fucino was large enough that only part of it was needed, surrounded by pontoons, and there was room enough for the vessels to manoeuvre and ram each other. The
573:
inside the
Colosseum, undoubtedly circa 85 AD, and another one in the year 89 AD in a new basin dug beyond the Tiber; with the stone removed serving to repair the
559:, one in the Augustinian basin, again using several thousand men, and the other in the new amphitheatre (Dio Cassius, LXVI, 25, 1–4). According to Suetonius (
363:, 16, 200), describes an island formed in the center, probably rectangular and connected to the shore by a bridge where the privileged spectators likely sat.
974:
583:
that
Domitian completed the network of rooms underneath the Colosseum that are visible today, at the same time precluding such spectacles in the arena.
846:
is easily discernible, but limited and reduced to local and innocuous naval games and re-enactments. A competition which went under the name of
1247:
218:("those who are about to die salute you"). There is no evidence that this form of address was used on any occasion other than this single
686:
would have been performed on only a shallow layer of water covering the surface of the arena, the minimum required to float the ships.
1160:
on the lake with small ships; he also ordered a construction of a fort on the lake's edge to participate in the mock battles himself.
376:. The two fleets each consisted of 50 vessels, which corresponds to the number of vessels in each of the two military fleets based at
259:
had the ability to represent historical or pseudo-historical themes. Each of the fleets participating represented a maritime power of
1143:
1313:
Pesala Bandara, 'Mary Queen of Scot's Aquatic Entertainments for the Wedding of John Fleming to Elizabeth Ross', Margaret Shewring,
615:
The use of enough water to float vessels in amphitheatres raises technical questions. Amphitheatres were not exclusively used for
1084:
421:
of Augustus was specially constructed, with the surplus used to water neighbouring gardens in the Trans Tiberim. This was the
1142:
were staged in private parks and gardens, consciously recreating them based on the Roman pattern, though on a smaller scale.
213:
771:
1472:
1427:
68:
46:
1246:, Transactions of the American Philological Association, 1939, 70, 46-47: available online at Bill Thayer's website
1242:("or not"), which the naumachiarii misinterpret as a general pardon, much to the fury of the emperor. See Leon, HJ,
39:
1080:
1450:
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were used to represent ships, sometimes with mechanisms to simulate shipwrecks, both on stage and in the arena (
1487:
1262:, Vol. 83 (1993), p. 50; Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, DOI: 10.2307/300978 – via
1072:
1302:
In Queens, a Battle on the Low Seas, and May the Best Artist Win, New York Times, Libby Nelson, 14 Aug. 2009
199:(§ 23) claimed that 3000 men, not counting rowers, fought in 30 vessels with rams and several smaller boats.
665:. It was also served by two conduits, the western one of which connected to the nearby San Lazaro aqueduct.
353:
Augustus himself indicates that the basin measured 1800 Ă— 1200 Roman feet (approximately 533 Ă— 355 meters).
179:, he made 2000 combatants and 4000 rowers, all prisoners of war, fight. In 2 BC for the inauguration of the
1492:
1033:
436:. There are several theories as to the precise location of the site; the latest of which places it between
523:, LXI, 9, 5) speak of such a spectacle in 57 AD in a wooden amphitheatre inaugurated by the last of the
1497:
1179:
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The arena at the Colosseum only measured 79.35 Ă— 47.20 meters, far removed from the dimensions of the
444:
in the southeast, in the loop of the Tiber. The republican viaduct discovered in the Via Aurelia near
646:
1398:
33:
1448:
R. Taylor, "Torrent or trickle? The Aqua Alsietina, the Naumachia Augusti, and the Transtiberim",
806:. In the absence of any texts, it has to be assumed that it was only used at the time of Trajan.
451:
The basin did not last very long. During the reign of Augustus it was partly replaced (Suetonius,
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394:
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50:
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in order to fill the basin. The East conduit was deeper and designed to drain water into the
800:(tiered stands for spectators) and the surface was about one sixth the size of the Augustan
1125:
1054:
995:
441:
8:
1315:
Waterborne Pageants and Festivities in the Renaissance: Essays in Honour of J. R. Mulryne
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Note in margine di topografia romana : "Codeta, minor Codeta" e "Naumachia Caesaris
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316:), has since come to also refer to the large artificial basins created for them.
286:
1410:
L'amphithéâtre romain. Essai sur la théorisation de sa forme et de ses fonctions
1258:
Coleman, K. M., "Launching into History: Aquatic Displays in the Early Empire",
1396:
K. M. Coleman, "Launching into history: aquatic displays in the Early Empire",
1174:
1076:
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in 1589. There is an etching of the event that was part of an album created by
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577:, which had burnt on two sides. It was probably in the time between these two
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The introduction of new technologies initially led to an increased number of
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historical themes borrowed from the Greek world are closely tied to the term
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160:
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133:
114:
93:
83:
304:. This word, a phonetic transcription of the Greek word for a naval battle (
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gave what was possibly the most "epic" of these on a natural body of water,
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as mass entertainment, and the basin or building in which this took place.
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basin. This site was discovered in the 18th century on the grounds of the
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disappear from the texts almost completely. Apart from a mention in the
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662:
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Aedes Fortis Fortunae, Naumachia Augusti, Castra Ravennatium : la
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1120:, where on 7 June she watched a staged battle at the confluence of the
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1037:
336:
485:
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546:
429:
250:, simply had to transpose the same principle to another environment.
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Naumachia on the Seine for the entry of Henri II into Rouen in 1550.
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Nevertheless, if late Roman Empire sources and persistence into the
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527:. Nothing is known of the site other than that it was built on the
203:
1071:
were staged on a loch in Holyrood park in 1562 for the wedding of
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The dimensions of these basins rule out any but the most basic of
1109:
864:
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628:
598:
381:
377:
172:
1425:
A. M. Liberati, s. v. "Naumachia Augusti", in E. Steinby (ed.),
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wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V of the Palatinate
994:
river, on the occasion of the centenary of the canonization of
857:
775:
764:, a late source of limited reliability, only the town records (
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294:
168:
1036:, England, still stages such an event. Smaller, theatre-based
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bears witness to this. Of some twenty representations of a
498:
1391:
Bullettino della Commissione Acheologica comunale di Roma
1206:"Boats and Boating in the Designed Landscape, 1720-1820"
965:
and Christine of Lorraine held in the courtyard of the
390:
of Claudius therefore truly reproduced naval combat.
1060:
961:
was part of the festivities of Wedding of Arch Duke
428:, remains of which have been found on the slopes of
867:which had taken place at these games earlier. If
1443:Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series
1341:A Chronological Outline of the History of Bristol
448:may also have served as a conduit for the basin.
1479:
1441:L. Haselberger (dir.), "Mapping Augustan Rome",
1373:e alcuni edifici nella Pianta Marmorea Severiana
863:from the Flavian period onward. It replaced the
432:(the "8th hill of Rome") below the monastery of
1199:
1197:
1195:
497:A new development occurred during the reign of
1436:A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome
689:
464:
159:in Rome in 46 BC on occasion of his quadruple
1356:, vol. 2 (London, 1828), pp. 646-7, 661, 664.
610:
1192:
253:Through the choreography of the combat, the
1438:, Baltimore-London, 1992, pp. 265-266, 292.
1155:
1154:in the shape of a swan, and staged several
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87:
871:is to be believed, (Moselle, 200–2,29), a
840:In the provinces, the influence of Roman
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
915:
901:
884:
740:
484:
473:
82:
32:This article includes a list of general
92:(detail): an imaginative recreation by
1480:
748:on a map of ancient Rome around 300 AD
132:world referred to both the staging of
1234:The phrase is attested in Suetonius,
1203:
977:to document the wedding festivities.
607:, XIV, 6, 1; Dio Cassius LXI, 12,2).
319:
1330:, vol. 2 (London, 1828), pp. 527-30.
349:of Augustus is better known: in his
163:. After having a basin dug near the
18:
542:which happened shortly afterwards.
139:
128:, literally "naval combat") in the
13:
893:
649:, provide any technical evidence.
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
1509:
1458:
1428:Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae
1061:Naumachia in Scotland and England
898:1589 Wedding at the Palazzo Pitti
631:does as well speaking of Titus'
23:
1451:American Journal of Archaeology
1104:in February 1613. In June 1613
1079:in 1581 for the wedding of the
792:. It is now referred to as the
440:in the north and the church of
370:It was different for Claudius'
1346:
1333:
1320:
1307:
1296:
1283:The Metropolitan Museum of Art
1271:
1252:
1228:
1112:. A seat was built for her at
1:
1473:Text from Smith (1870) online
1454:101 (1997), pp. 465–492.
1354:Progresses of James the First
1328:Progresses of James the First
1185:
998:in 1755. Another was held in
1420:Amphithéâtres et gladiateurs
1412:, Paris, 1988, 50-51, 59-61.
1343:(Bristol, 1824), pp. 169-70.
1260:The Journal of Roman Studies
545:For the inauguration of the
415:), the water supply for the
187:"), Augustus gave a grander
167:, capable of holding actual
7:
1418:J.-Cl. Golvin, Ch. Landes,
1163:
990:between the Bridges of the
10:
1514:
1180:Spectacles in ancient Rome
752:After the Flavian period,
611:Water in the amphitheatres
306:
118:
96:, first exhibited in 1894.
16:Staged Roman naval battles
1249:(accessed 1 January 2010)
531:. Nero presented another
244:. Caesar, creator of the
1399:Journal of Roman Studies
912:held in Valencia in 1755
726:, nearly all are of the
1267:(subscription required)
963:Ferdinando I de' Medici
680:(underground complex),
489:Naumachia Domitiani by
395:Sextus Julius Frontinus
312:
124:
53:more precise citations.
1371:Via Campana Portuensis
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289:for that of Augustus,
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109:
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1488:Ancient Roman theatre
1402:83 (1993), pp. 48-74.
1244:Morituri Te Salutamus
1144:The Lord le Despencer
919:
905:
897:
881:between local youth.
774:tells us that in 109
744:
488:
477:
86:
1204:Felus, Kate (2006).
1055:Queens Museum of Art
996:Saint Vincent Ferrer
478:Naumachia Neroni by
442:San Francesco a Ripa
214:morituri te salutant
181:Temple of Mars Ultor
1493:Gladiatorial combat
1393:, 1999, 100, 53-62.
1040:were also popular.
790:Castel Sant'Angelos
788:, northwest of the
406:De aquis urbis Romæ
1445:50 (2002), p. 179.
1422:, Paris, 1990, 96.
1096:was staged on the
946:Henry II of France
944:was performed for
936:
914:
900:
794:Naumachia Vaticana
750:
746:Naumachia Vaticana
712:exceptional. The
705:. The first three
639:Book of Spectacles
637:in the Colosseum (
540:great fire of Rome
495:
483:
98:
1498:Theatrical combat
1431:, III, 1996, 337.
1118:Bristol Cathedral
1085:Elizabeth Stewart
975:Orazio Scarabelli
854:Panathenaic Games
730:, of the time of
690:Decline of Roman
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1417:
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1317:(Ashgate, 2013).
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1043:New York artist
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877:was held on the
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852:was part of the
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813:in terms of the
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470:in amphitheatres
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455:, 43, 1) by the
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1114:Canon's Marsh
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1081:Earl of Moray
1078:
1074:
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1030:Peasholm Park
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964:
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951:
947:
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879:Moselle River
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844:
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694:
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664:
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647:MĂ©rida, Spain
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627:(LXI, 9, 5);
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521:Roman History
518:
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511:. Suetonius (
510:
505:
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492:
491:Giacomo Lauro
487:
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480:Giacomo Lauro
476:
468:
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458:nemus Cæsarum
454:
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446:San Crisogono
443:
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400:De aquaeductu
396:
393:According to
391:
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158:
157:Julius Caesar
155:was given by
153:
144:
137:
135:
134:naval battles
131:
130:Ancient Roman
126:
116:
115:Ancient Greek
111:
107:
103:
95:
94:Ulpiano Checa
90:
85:
81:
73:
70:
62:
52:
48:
42:
41:
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30:
21:
20:
1449:
1442:
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1426:
1419:
1409:
1397:
1390:
1386:
1383:(in Italian)
1376:
1368:
1365:(in Italian)
1353:
1348:
1340:
1339:John Evans,
1335:
1327:
1322:
1314:
1309:
1298:
1286:. Retrieved
1282:
1273:
1259:
1254:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1216:(1): 22–46.
1213:
1209:
1152:West Wycombe
1134:Georgian-era
1131:
1089:
1073:Lord Fleming
1065:In Scotland
1064:
1042:
1010:Parc Monceau
1008:
986:was held in
979:
954:
937:
928:Arena Civica
926:held in the
856:between the
839:
808:
786:Vatican City
759:
751:
728:Fourth Style
698:
675:
667:
651:
638:
614:
585:
567:organised a
563:, IV, 6–7),
560:
544:
520:
512:
509:amphitheatre
496:
452:
450:
434:San Cosimato
398:
392:
369:
365:
358:
328:
252:
226:
211:
201:
194:
177:quinqueremes
148:
101:
99:
80:
65:
59:October 2016
56:
37:
1465:(in French)
1416:(in French)
1406:(in French)
1075:and on the
1038:aqua dramas
1034:Scarborough
1016:features a
885:Post-Roman
811:Middle Ages
714:iconography
663:Roman baths
659:Adige River
588:Augustinian
517:Dio Cassius
438:Via Aurelia
409:, 11, 1-2:
265:Hellenistic
208:Fucine Lake
113:, from the
51:introducing
1482:Categories
1288:5 December
1186:References
1045:Duke Riley
888:naumachiae
843:naumachiae
833:naumachiae
755:naumachiae
708:naumachiae
702:naumachiae
693:naumachiae
683:naumachiae
671:naumachiae
618:naumachiae
556:naumachiae
549:in 80 AD,
467:Naumachiae
337:Trastevere
242:gladiators
143:naumachiae
34:references
1240:"aut non"
1157:Naumachia
1139:Naumachia
1136:Britain,
1116:near the
1093:Naumachia
1068:naumachia
1050:naumachia
1047:staged a
1025:naumachia
1019:naumachia
1006:in 1807.
983:naumachia
958:naumachia
952:in 1550.
941:naumachia
923:naumachia
920:A modern
909:naumachia
874:naumachia
849:naumaciva
826:dalmachia
820:naumachia
803:naumachia
798:bleachers
781:naumachia
724:Roman art
719:naumachia
634:naumachia
624:naumachia
593:naumachia
590:basin. A
580:naumachia
570:naumachia
553:gave two
547:Colosseum
534:naumachia
504:naumachia
430:Janiculum
418:naumachia
387:naumachia
373:naumachia
346:naumachia
332:naumachia
329:Caesar's
322:Naumachia
313:naumakhĂa
301:naumachia
291:Sicilians
287:Athenians
278:naumachia
269:Egyptians
256:naumachia
247:naumachia
236:naumachia
230:naumachia
221:naumachia
202:In 52 AD
196:Res Gestæ
190:naumachia
152:naumachia
125:naumachĂa
110:naumachia
102:naumachia
89:Naumachia
1222:27671181
1164:See also
1108:visited
1004:Napoleon
988:Valencia
971:Florence
869:Ausonius
865:regattas
858:Athenian
815:toponymy
734:and the
677:hypogeum
655:aqueduct
565:Domitian
561:Domitian
453:Augustus
426:aqueduct
325:building
307:ναυμαχία
295:Rhodeans
283:Persians
271:and the
204:Claudius
173:triremes
119:ναυμαχία
1377:Ostraka
1110:Bristol
1100:at the
934:in 1807
861:Ephebos
629:Martial
604:Annales
599:Tacitus
382:Ravenna
380:and at
378:Misenum
339:or the
273:Tyrians
263:or the
169:biremes
161:triumph
47:improve
1220:
1098:Thames
776:Trajan
767:fastia
643:Verona
507:in an
493:, 1625
343:. The
267:east:
140:Early
36:, but
1264:JSTOR
1236:Lives
1218:JSTOR
1126:Frome
1014:Paris
1000:Milan
992:Turia
950:Rouen
932:Milan
772:Ostia
770:) of
551:Titus
165:Tiber
106:Latin
1290:2023
1124:and
1122:Avon
1083:and
1002:for
823:and
732:Nero
645:and
513:Nero
501:: a
499:Nero
293:and
285:and
227:The
175:and
104:(in
100:The
1150:at
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1012:in
969:in
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930:in
817:of
722:in
397:in
1484::
1389:,
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1281:.
1214:34
1212:.
1208:.
1194:^
1090:A
1087:.
1057:.
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66:(
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57:(
43:.
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