337:, Galileo reported his discovery of four objects that appeared to form a straight line of stars near Jupiter. On the first night he detected a line of three little stars close to Jupiter parallel to the ecliptic; the following nights brought different arrangements and another star into his view, totalling four stars around Jupiter. Throughout the text, Galileo gave illustrations of the relative positions of Jupiter and its apparent companion stars as they appeared nightly from late January through early March 1610. That they changed their positions relative to Jupiter from night to night and yet always appeared in the same straight line near it, persuaded Galileo that they were orbiting Jupiter. On January 11 after four nights of observation he wrote:
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see and verify what
Galileo had observed supported the supposition that the optical theory during this period "could not clearly demonstrate that the instrument was not deceiving the senses." By naming the four moons after the Medici brothers and convincing the Grand Duke Cosimo II of his discoveries, the defence of Galileo's reports became a matter of State. Moran notes, “the court itself became actively involved in pursuing the confirmation of Galileo’s observations by paying Galileo out of its treasury to manufacture spyglasses that could be sent through ambassadorial channels to the major courts of Europe."
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267:) was smooth where it crossed the darker regions of the Moon but quite irregular where it crossed the brighter areas. From this he deduced that the darker regions are flat, low-lying areas, and the brighter regions rough and mountainous. Basing his estimate on the distance of sunlit mountaintops from the terminator, he judged, quite accurately, that the lunar mountains were at least four miles high. Galileo's
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436:(1631). In addition, the discovery of the Medicean Stars fascinated other astronomers, and they wanted to view the moons for themselves. Their efforts "set the stage for the modern scientific requirement of experimental reproducibility by independent researchers. Verification versus falsifiability…saw their origins in the announcement of
548:
as strictly mathematical and hypothetical. However, once
Galileo began to speak of the Copernican system as fact rather than theory, it introduced "a more chaotic system, a less-than-godly lack of organization." In fact, the Copernican system that Galileo believed to be real challenged the Scripture,
498:. Therefore, the night Galileo first observed Jupiter's moons was January 7, 1610 on the Gregorian calendar—December 28, 1609 on the Julian calendar (Marius claimed to have first observed Jupiter's moons on December 29, 1609). Although Galileo did indeed discover Jupiter's four moons before Marius,
341:
I therefore concluded and decided unhesitatingly, that there are three stars in the heavens moving about
Jupiter, as Venus and Mercury round the Sun; which at length was established as clear as daylight by numerous subsequent observations. These observations also established that there are not only
443:
But many individuals and communities were sceptical. A common response to the
Medicean Stars was simply to say that the telescope had a lens defect and was producing illusory points of light and images; those saying this completely denied the existence of the moons. That only a few could initially
298:
Galileo reported that he saw at least ten times more stars through the telescope than are visible to the naked eye, and he published star charts of the belt of Orion and the star cluster
Pleiades showing some of the newly observed stars. With the naked eye observers could see only six stars in the
312:
star catalogue, he saw that rather than being cloudy, they were made of many small stars. From this he deduced that the nebulae and the Milky Way were "congeries of innumerable stars grouped together in clusters" too small and distant to be resolved into individual stars by the naked eye.
346:
In his drawings, Galileo used an open circle to represent
Jupiter and asterisks to represent the four stars. He made this distinction to show that there was in fact a difference between these two types of celestial bodies. It is important to note that Galileo used the terms
451:, who published an open letter in April 1610, enthusiastically endorsing Galileo's credibility. It was not until August 1610 that Kepler was able to publish his independent confirmation of Galileo's findings, due to the scarcity of sufficiently powerful telescopes.
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on March 13, 1610. It was the first published scientific work based on observations made through a telescope, and it contains the results of
Galileo's early observations of the imperfect and mountainous Moon, of hundreds of stars not visible to the naked eye in the
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cluster; through his telescope, however, Galileo was capable of seeing thirty-five – almost six times as many. When he turned his telescope on Orion, he was capable of seeing eighty stars, rather than the previously observed nine – almost nine times more. In
186:, many of Galileo's early drafts of the book and later related writings indicate that the intended purpose of the book was "simply to report the news about recent developments in astronomy, not to pass himself off solemnly as an ambassador from heaven."
474:(published in 1614) by insisting that he had found Jupiter's four moons before Galileo and had been observing them since 1609. Marius believed that he therefore had the right to name them, which he did: he named them after Jupiter's love conquests:
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The conflict ended in 1633 with
Galileo being sentenced to a form of house arrest by the Catholic Church. However, by 1633, Galileo had published other works in support of the Copernican view, and these were largely what caused his sentencing.
211:
using one. One of
Galileo's first telescopes had 8x to 10x linear magnification and was made out of lenses that he had ground himself. This was increased to 20x linear magnification in the improved telescope he used to make the observations in
206:
tried to obtain a patent on one. By 1609 Galileo had heard about it and built his own improved version. He probably was not the first person to aim the new invention at the night sky but his was the first systematic (and published) study of
385:
brothers. This helped him receive the position of Chief
Mathematician and Philosopher to the Medici at the University of Pisa. Ultimately, his effort at naming the moons failed, for they are now referred to as the
308:, Galileo revised and reproduced these two star groups by distinguishing between the stars seen without the telescope and those seen with it. Also, when he observed some of the "nebulous" stars in the
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By 1626 knowledge of the telescope had spread to China when German Jesuit and astronomer Johann Adam Schall von Bell published Yuan jing shuo, (Explanation of the Telescope) in Chinese and Latin.
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three, but four, erratic sidereal bodies performing their revolutions round Jupiter...the revolutions are so swift that an observer may generally get differences of position every hour.
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402:, ranging from appraisal and hostility to disbelief, soon spread throughout Italy and England. Many poems and texts were published expressing love for the new form of
466:, published their confirmation of the Medicean Stars after Jupiter became visible again in the autumn of 1610. Marius, a German astronomer who had studied with
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Telescopes, Tides, and Tactics: A Galilean Dialogue about The Starry Messenger and Systems of the World, including translation of Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius
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and had recently received a lifetime contract for his work in building more powerful telescopes. He desired to return to Florence, and in hopes of gaining
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William R. Shea and Tiziana Bascelli; translated from the Latin by William R. Shea, introduction and notes by William R. Shea and Tiziana Bascelli.
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786:. Isis, Vol. 101, No. 3 (September 2010), pp. 644-645. Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society.
835:. Isis, Vol. 41, No. 3/4 (Dec., 1950), pp. 287-289. Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society.
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Mendillo, M. "The Appearance of the Medicean Moons in 17th Century Charts and Books—How Long Did It Take?", 2010.
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490:. But Galileo was not confounded; he pointed out that being outside the Church, Marius had not yet accepted the
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381:. In addition, he named his discovered four moons of Jupiter the "Medicean Stars," in honor of the four royal
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was described as pointing an early reflector/refractor device at the sky to see "myriads of stars" and
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of Jupiter. Galileo's text also includes descriptions, explanations, and theories of his observations.
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interchangeably, and "both words were correct usage within the prevailing Aristotelian terminology."
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of the lunar surface provided a new form of visual representation, besides shaping the field of
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Howard, Deborah (1992). "Elsheimer's Flight into Egypt and the Night Sky in the Renaissance".
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contains more than seventy drawings and diagrams of the Moon, certain constellations such as
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941:"Reading through Galileo's Telescope: Margaret Cavendish and the Experience of Reading"
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Image courtesy of the History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries.
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Image courtesy of the History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries.
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In observing the Moon, Galileo saw that the line separating lunar day from night (the
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533:'s cosmological descriptions of perfect and unchanging heavenly bodies made of
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646:. Sagamore Beach, MA: Science History Publications/USA, 2009. viii + 115 pp.
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science. Three works of art were even created in response to Galileo's book:
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Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1989. xiii + 127 pp.
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The telescope in the making, the Galileo first telescopic observations
578:. Waterloo Place, London: Oxford and Cambridge, January 1880. 148 pp.
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846:"Museo della Specola, Bologna - Catalogue, telescopes, introduction"
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Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love
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Edward Stafford Carlos; translations with introduction and notes.
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The first astronomer to publicly support Galileo's findings was
23:"Starry Messenger" redirects here. For the Peter SĂs book, see
549:"which referred to the sun 'rising' and the earth as 'unmoving.
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871:
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Galileo's drawings of an imperfect Moon directly contradicted
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Galileo Galilei, Sidereus Nuncius, or The Sidereal Messenger.
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made moon observations several months before Galileo's. See
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Sidereus nuncius; or, A Sidereal Message, by Galileo Galilei
174:; however, it was also (though less frequently) rendered as
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The Three Galileos: The Man, the Spacecraft, the Telescope
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Galileo's drawings of Jupiter and its Medicean Stars from
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Sidereus-Nuncius, or the Sidereal Messenger - Galilei, G
627:); translation with introduction, conclusion and notes.
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612:. London: University Of Chicago Press, 1983. 256 pp.
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Galileo's drawings of the Pleiades star cluster from
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was typically used during this time period to denote
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Albert Van Helden (Professor Emeritus of History at
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to his former pupil, now the Grand Duke of Tuscany,
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Proceedings Of The International Astronomical Union
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Proceedings Of The International Astronomical Union
1081:. Great Britain: Penguin Books. pp. 375–383.
576:, and a part of the preface to Kepler's Dioptrics
1720:
365:publication, Galileo was a mathematician at the
1385:Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
668:. Paris: Belles Lettres, 1992. ASIN B0028S7JLK.
644:Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius or Sidereal Message
275:, the study of physical features on the Moon.
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1067:, n.d. Annals Of Science, 47(5), pp. 525-526.
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833:The Title of Galileo's Sidereus nuncius
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182:is usually translated into English as
163:that appeared to be circling Jupiter.
1355:Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina
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927:A New Heaven: Galileo and the Artists
666:Sidereus Nuncius: Le Messager Celeste
194:The first telescopes appeared in the
161:Medicean Stars (later Galilean moons)
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734:Selenographia, sive Lunae descriptio
593:, includes translation of Galileo's
521:Controversy with the Catholic Church
228:Galileo's sketches of the Moon from
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811:LARB Quarterly Journal: Spring 2014
597:. Doubleday: Anchor, 1957. 320 pp.
591:Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo
544:, the Catholic Church accepted the
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805:Mazzotti, Massimo (25 June 2014).
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1152:in HTML format, or in Italian in
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929:, 1988. History Today, 38(2), 30.
458:, Joseph Gaultier de la Vatelle,
317:Medicean Stars (Moons of Jupiter)
18:The Sidereal Messenger (magazine)
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999:Galileo trans Carlos, 1880, p47.
909:, Volume 6 Issue 269, pp. 27-32.
45:Title page of the first edition.
30:Astronomical treatise of Galileo
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1194:of Galileo Galilei in English
1142:. Photographed first edition.
813:. Los Angeles Review of Books
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454:Several astronomers, such as
1347:Letter to Benedetto Castelli
1208:Full digital edition in the
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1077:Koestler, Arthur (1964).
700:. Firenze: Sansoni, 1948.
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675:. France: Points, 1992.
494:and was still using the
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1515:Galileo Galilei Airport
1286:Galilean transformation
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1172:scanned pirated edition
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1362:Discourse on the Tides
1192:The Sidereal Messenger
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1168:scanned first edition
946:Renaissance Quarterly
413:The Flight into Egypt
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1479:Galileo's telescopes
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1271:Galileo's escapement
988:Galileo trans Carlos
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379:Cosimo II de' Medici
373:there, he dedicated
333:In the last part of
1496:Galileo thermometer
1369:Discourse on Comets
1339:Letters on Sunspots
1276:Galilean invariance
719:Letters on Sunspots
712:Discourse on Comets
367:University of Padua
178:. Though the title
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1536:In popular culture
1491:Tribune of Galileo
1323:De motu antiquiora
1210:Stanford Libraries
1164:Linda Hall Library
1160:. From LiberLiber.
876:The Three Galileos
755:"A Very Rare Book"
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119:Sidereal Messenger
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1254:Scientific career
1198:Project Gutenberg
1091:Gattei, Stefano.
664:Isabelle Pantin.
652:978-0-88135-375-4
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1393:Two New Sciences
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1377:The Assayer
1326:(1589–1592)
1306:Thermoscope
1138:1610. From
1109:Sparknotes.
468:Tycho Brahe
196:Netherlands
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1729:1610 books
1723:Categories
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1063:Moran, B.
764:2016-01-11
741:References
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