Grounded theory - Knowledge

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is necessary. Popper also undermines grounded theory's idea that hypotheses arise from data unaffected by prior expectations. Popper wrote that "objects can be classified and can become similar or dissimilar, only in this way--by being related to needs and interests." Observation is always selective, based on past research and the investigators' goals and motives, and that preconceptionless research is impossible. Critics also note that grounded theory fails to mitigate participant reactivity and has the potential for an investigator steeped in grounded theory to over-identify with one or more study participants.

40: 1067:. The publication of the book was followed by a rebuke by Glaser (1992), who set out, chapter by chapter, to highlight the differences in what he argued was the original grounded theory and why what Strauss and Corbin had written was not grounded theory in its "intended form." This divergence in methodology is a subject of much academic debate, which Glaser (1998) calls a "rhetorical wrestle". Glaser continues to write about and teach the original grounded theory method. 889:

notes. This phase is often tedious since it involves conceptualizing all the incidents in the data, which yields many concepts. These are compared as more data is coded, merged into new concepts, and eventually renamed and modified. The grounded theory researcher goes back and forth while comparing data, constantly modifying, and sharpening the growing theory at the same time they follow the build-up schedule of grounded theory's different steps.

1119:, who argued for a structured and differentiated account of reality in which difference, stratification, and change are central. A critical realist grounded theory produces an explanation through an examination of the three domains of social reality: the "real," as the domain of structures and mechanisms; the "actual," as the domain of events; and the "empirical," as the domain of experiences and perceptions. 682:, a theory that aims to understand how people interact with each other in creating symbolic worlds and how an individual's symbolic world helps to shape a person's behavior. He viewed individuals as "active" participants in forming their own understanding of the world. Strauss underlined the richness of qualitative research in shedding light on social processes and the complexity of social life. 914:– a deductive component of grounded theory. Selective coding delimits the scope of the study (Glaser, 1998). Grounded theory is less concerned with data accuracy than with generating concepts that are abstract and general. Selective coding could be conducted by reviewing old field notes and/or memos that have already been coded once at an earlier stage or by coding newly gathered data. 1075:

researcher uses a well-defined "coding paradigm" and always looks systematically for "causal conditions," "phenomena/context, intervening conditions, action strategies," and "consequences" in the data (Straussian), or whether theoretical codes are employed as they emerge in the same way as substantive codes emerge, but drawing on a huge fund of "coding families" (Glaserian).

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not. Thomas and James observed that "The problems come when too much is claimed for , simply because it is empirical; problems come in distinguishing generalization from over-generalization, narrative from induction." They also write that grounded theory advocates sometimes claim to find causal implications when in truth they only find an association.

974:, which traces the origins and uses of the word "serendipity" since it was coined. The book is "a study in sociological semantics and the sociology of science," as the subtitle declares. Merton and Barber further develop the idea of serendipity as scientific "method," as contrasted with purposeful discovery by experiment or retrospective prophecy. 1042:, Glaser and Strauss advanced the view that, prior to conducting research, investigators should come to an area of study without any preconceived ideas regarding relevant concepts and hypotheses. In this way, the investigator, according to Glaser and Strauss, avoids imposing preconceived categories upon the research endeavor. 1050:) could lead investigators to apply preexisting concepts to the data, rather than interpret concepts emerging from the data. He, however, encouraged a broad reading of the literature to develop theoretical sensitivity. Strauss felt that reading relevant material could enhance the researcher's theoretical sensitivity. 821:. The process involves analyzing data such that conceptual components emerge. The next step involves theorizing, which partly includes pulling concepts together and thinking through how each concept can be related to a larger more inclusive concept. The constant comparative method plays an important role here. 1099:. However, I had long thought that the strategies of grounded theory methodology, including coding, memo writing, and theoretical sampling were excellent methodological tools. I saw no reason to discard these tools and every reason to shift the epistemological grounds on which researchers used them." 1074:

or emergence, and the individual researcher's creativity within a clear stagelike framework. By contrast, Strauss has been more interested in validation criteria and a systematic approach. According to Kelle (2005), "the controversy between Glaser and Strauss boils down to the question of whether the

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puts fractured data back together. During sorting new ideas can emerge. The new ideas can, in turn, be recorded in new memos, giving rise to the memo-on-memos phenomenon. Sorting memos can help generate theory that explains the main action in the studied area. A theory written from unsorted memos may

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total creative freedom without rules of writing, grammar or style (Glaser 1998). The writing must be an instrument for outflow of ideas, and nothing else. When people write memos, the ideas become more realistic, being converted from thoughts into words, and thus ideas communicable to the afterworld.

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are important tools to both refine and keep track of ideas that develop when researchers compare incidents to incidents and then concepts to concepts in the evolving theory. In memos, investigators develop ideas about naming concepts and relating them to each other. They examine relationships between

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A study based on grounded theory is likely to begin with a question, or even just with the collection of qualitative data. As researchers review the data collected, ideas or concepts become apparent to the researchers. These ideas/concepts are said to "emerge" from the data. The researchers tag those

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See the section: "The emergence of categories and their properties from the data" in: "It becomes possible to differentiate incidents in the data or text passages classified as dealing with social loss according to the subcategory ‘degree of social loss’ by forming further subcategories

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There has been criticism of grounded theory on the grounds that it opens the door to letting too much researcher subjectivity enter. The authors just cited suggest that it is impossible to free oneself of preconceptions in the collection and analysis of data in the way that Glaser and Strauss assert

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Grounded theory has been criticized based on the scientific idea of what a theory is. Thomas and James, for example, distinguish the ideas of generalization, overgeneralization, and theory, noting that some scientific theories explain a broad range of phenomena succinctly, which grounded theory does

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Glaser later attempted to address the tension between not reading and reading the literature before a qualitative study begins. Glaser raised the issue of the use of a literature review to enhance the researchers' "theoretical sensitivity," i.e., their ability to identify a grounded theory that is a

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the sorted memos follows the sorting process. At this stage, a written theory takes shape. The different categories are now related to each other and the core variable. The theory should encompass the important emergent concepts and their careful description. The researcher may also construct tables

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is conceptualizing on the first level of abstraction. Written data from field notes or transcripts are conceptualized line by line. In the beginning of a study everything is coded in order to find out about the problem and how it is being resolved. The coding is often done in the margin of the field

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is a fundamental property of grounded theory. The idea means that everything that the researcher encounters when studying a certain area is data, including not only interviews or observations but anything that helps the researcher generate concepts for the emerging theory. According to Ralph, Birks,

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In most behavioral research endeavors, persons or patients are units of analysis, whereas in grounded theory the unit of analysis is the incident. Typically several hundred incidents are analyzed in a grounded theory study because every participant usually reports many incidents. When comparing many

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refers to a heuristic often used in science that suggests that when there are competing hypotheses that make the same prediction, the hypothesis that relies on the fewest assumptions is preferable. Grounded theories aim to provide practical and simple explanations of complex phenomena by attempting

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Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research findings accurately represent real-world settings. Research based on grounded theories are often thought to be ecologically valid because the research is especially close to the real-world participants. Although the constructs in a grounded

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Talking about the theory before it is written up drains the researcher of motivational energy. Talking can either render praise or criticism. Both can diminish the motivational drive to write memos that develop and refine the concepts and the theory. Positive feedback, according to Glaser, can make

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stage, the relevant scholarly literature is woven into the theory. Finally, the theory is edited for style and language. Eventually, the researcher submits the resulting scholarly paper for publication. Most books on grounded theory do not explain what methodological details should be included in a

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Theoretical codes help to develop an integrated theory by weaving fractured concepts into hypotheses that work together. The theory, of which the just-mentioned hypotheses are constituents, explains the main concern of the participants. It is, however, important that the theory is not forced on the

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where categories are continually compared to one another is used to create both subcategories and properties. There is some variation in the meanings of the terms code, concept and category with some authors viewing a code as identical to category while others consider a concept to be more abstract

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A theory that is fitting has concepts that are closely connected to the incidents the theory purports to represent; fit depends on how thoroughly the constant comparison of incidents to concepts has been conducted. A qualitative study driven by grounded theory examines the genuine concerns of study

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Although they suggest that one element of grounded theory worth keeping is the constant comparative method, Thomas and James point to the formulaic nature of grounded theory methods and the lack of congruence of those methods with open and creative interpretation, which ought to be the hallmark of

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Coding text and theorizing: In grounded theory research, the search for a theory starts with the first line of the first interview that one codes. Small chunks of the text are coded line-by-line. Useful concepts are identified where key phrases are marked. The concepts are named. Another chunk of

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Grounded theory provides methods for generating hypotheses from qualitative data. After hypotheses are generated, it is up to other researchers to attempt to sustain or reject those hypotheses. Questions asked by the qualitative researcher employing grounded theory include "What is going on?" and

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Grounded theory constructs symbolic codes based on categories emerging from recorded qualitative data. The idea is to allow grounded theory methods to help us better understand the phenomenal world of individuals. According to Milliken and Schreiber, another of the grounded theorist's tasks is to

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Without memoing, the theory is superficial and the concepts generated are not very original. Memoing works as an accumulation of written ideas into a bank of ideas about concepts and how they relate to each other. This bank contains rich parts of what will later be the written theory. Memoing is

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Memoing and theorizing: Memoing is the process by which a researcher writes running notes bearing on each of the concepts being identified. The running notes constitute an intermediate step between coding and the first draft of the completed analysis. Memos are field notes about the concepts and

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as having fewer theoretical assumptions than grounded theory, and can be used within several theoretical frameworks. They write that in comparison to grounded theory, thematic analysis is freer because it is not linked to any preexisting framework for making sense of qualitative data. Braun and

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In an interview, Charmaz justified her approach as follows: "Grounded theory methodology had been under attack. The postmodern critique of qualitative research had weakened its legitimacy and narrative analysts criticized grounded theory methodology for fragmenting participants' stories. Hence,

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has come to be applied in grounded theory research. Serendipity patterns refer to fairly common experiences when observing the world. Serendipity patterns include unanticipated and anomalous events. These patterns can become the impetus for the development of a new theory or the extension of an

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Integrating, refining and writing up theories: Once coding categories emerge, the next step is to link them together in a theoretical model constructed around a central category that holds the concepts together. The constant comparative method comes into play, along with negative case analysis.

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A goal of the researcher employing grounded theory methods is that of generating concepts that explain the way people resolve their central concerns regardless of time and place. These concepts organize the ground-level data. The concepts become the building blocks of hypotheses. The hypotheses

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Reviewing the literature of the area under study is thought to generate preconceptions about what to find. The researcher is said to become sensitized to concepts in the extant literature. According to grounded theory, theoretical concepts should emerge from the data unsullied by what has come

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Memoing is also important in the early phase of a grounded theory study (e.g., during open coding). In memoing, the researcher conceptualizes incidents, helping the process along. Theoretical memos can be anything written or drawn in the context of the constant comparative method, an important

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is conducted after the researcher has found the core variable or what is thought to be the tentative core. The core explains the behavior of the participants in addressing their main concern. The tentative core is never wrong. It just more or less fits with the data. After the core variable is

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were often considered unscientific. But as the academic rigor of qualitative research became known, this type of research approach achieved wide acceptance. In American academia, qualitative research is often equated with grounded theory methods. Such equating of most qualitative methods with

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Grounded theory has been "shaped by the desire to discover social and psychological processes." Grounded theory, however, is not restricted to these two areas study. As Gibbs points out, the process of grounded theory can be and has been applied to a number of different disciplines, including

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Data are co-constructed by the researcher and study participants, and colored by the researcher's perspectives, values, privileges, positions, interactions, and geographical locations. This position takes a middle ground between the realist and postmodernist positions by assuming an "obdurate

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in its traditional research sense is not an issue in grounded theory. Rather, questions of fit, relevance, workability, and modifiability are more important in grounded theory. In addition, adherents of grounded theory emphasize a theoretical validity rather than traditional ideas of internal

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that succinctly summarize the ideas/concepts. As more data are collected and re-reviewed, codes can be grouped into higher-level concepts and then into categories. These categories become the basis of a hypothesis or a new theory. Thus, grounded theory is quite different from the traditional

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The grounded theory approach can be criticized as being too empiricist, i.e., that it relies too heavily on the empirical data. Grounded theory considers fieldwork data as the source of theory. Thus the theories that emerge from a new fieldwork are set against the theories that preceded the

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reality" at the same time as it assumes multiple perspectives on that reality. Within the framework of this approach, a literature review prior to data collection is used in a productive and data-sensitive way without forcing the conclusions contained in the review on the collected data.

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The core variable explains most of the participants' main concern with as much variation as possible. It has the most powerful properties to picture what's going on, but with as few properties as possible needed to do so. A popular type of core variable can be theoretically modeled as a

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There has been some divergence in the methodology of grounded theory. Over time, Glaser and Strauss came to disagree about methodology and other qualitative researchers have also modified ideas linked to grounded theory. This divergence occurred most obviously after Strauss published

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Grounded theory is a general research methodology, a way of thinking about and conceptualizing data. It is used in studies of diverse populations from areas like remarriage after divorce and professional socialization. Grounded theory methods were developed by two sociologists,

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Grounded theory focuses more on procedures than on the discipline to which grounded theory is applied. Rather than being limited to a particular discipline or form of data collection, grounded theory has been found useful across multiple research areas. Here are some examples:

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is "the core stage of grounded theory methodology" (Glaser 1998). "Memos are the theorizing write-up of ideas about substantive codes and their theoretically coded relationships as they emerge during coding, collecting and analyzing data, and during memoing" (Glaser 1998).

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Grounded theory gives the researcher freedom to generate new concepts in explaining human behavior. Research based on grounded theory, however, follows a number of rules. These rules make grounded theory different from most other methods employed in qualitative research.

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participants; those concerns are not only of academic interest. Grounded theory works when it explains how study participants address the problem at hand and related problems. A theory is modifiable and can be altered when new relevant data are compared to existing data.

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chosen, researchers selectively code data with the core guiding their coding, not bothering about concepts of little relevance to the core and its sub-cores. In addition, the researcher now selectively samples new data with the core in mind, a process that is called

1389:"The purpose of constant comparison is to see if the data support and continue to support merging categories. At the same time, the process further builds and substantiates the emerging categories by defining their properties and dimensions" 667:. According to Ralph, Birks and Chapman, grounded theory is "methodologically dynamic" in the sense that, rather than being a complete methodology, grounded theory provides a means of constructing methods to better understand situations humans find themselves in. 3043:

Charmaz, Kathy (2009) 'Shifting the grounds: Constructivist grounded theory methods', in J. M. Morse, P. N. Stern, J. Corbin, B. Bowers, K. Charmaz and A. E. Clarke (eds.), Developing Grounded Theory: The Second Generation. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.

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incidents in a certain area of study, the emerging concepts and their inter-relationships are paramount. Consequently, grounded theory is a general method that can use any kind of data although grounded theory is most commonly applied to qualitative data.

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According to Glaser, the strategy of grounded theory is to interpret personal meaning in the context of social interaction. The grounded theory system studies "the interrelationship between meaning in the perception of the subjects and their action".

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scientific model of research, where the researcher chooses an existing theoretical framework, develops one or more hypotheses derived from that framework, and only then collects data for the purpose of assessing the validity of the hypotheses.

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grounded theory methodology was beginning to be seen as a dated methodology and some researchers advocated abandoning it. I agreed with much of the epistemological critique of the early versions of grounded theory methodology by people like

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that accounts for most of the variation in change over time, context, and behavior in the studied area. "grounded theory is multivariate. It happens sequentially, subsequently, simultaneously, serendipitously, and scheduled" (Glaser, 1998).

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Researchers using grounded theory methods do not aim for the "truth." Rather, those researchers try to conceptualize what has been taking place in the lives of study participants. When applying grounded theory methods, the researcher does

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good fit to the data. He suggested that novice researchers might delay reading the literature to avoid undue influence on their handling of the qualitative data they collect. Glaser believed that reading the relevant research literature (

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researchers content with what they have and negative feedback hampers their self-confidence. Talking about the grounded theory should be restricted to persons capable of helping the researcher without influencing their final judgments.

1304:. Engaged theory equally emphasizes the conducting of on-the-ground empirical research but linking that research to analytical processes of empirical generalization. Unlike grounded theory, engaged theory derives from the tradition of 2843:

Kelle, Udo (2005). "Emergence" vs. "Forcing" of Empirical Data? A Crucial Problem of "Grounded Theory" Reconsidered. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research , 6(2), Art. 27, paragraphs 49 & 50.

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Kelle, U. (2005). "Emergence" vs. "Forcing" of Empirical Data? A Crucial Problem of "Grounded Theory" Reconsidered. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research , 6(2), Art. 27, paragraphs 49 & 50.

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data beforehand but is allowed to emerge during the comparative process of grounded theory. Theoretical codes, like substantive codes, should emerge from the process of constantly comparing the data in field notes and memos.

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study participants' qualitative responses. He recognized the importance of systematic analysis for qualitative research. He thus helped ensure that grounded theory require the generation of codes, categories, and properties.

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Thornberg, Robert and Charmaz, Kathy (2011) 'Grounded theory', in Lapan, S.D., Quartaroli M.T. and Reimer F.J. (eds.), Qualitative Research: An Introduction to Methods and Designs. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley/Jossey–Bass.

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Stol, K., Ralph, P. & Fitzgerald, B. (2016) Grounded Theory Research in Software Engineering: A Critical Review and Guidelines? Proceedings of the International Conference on Software Engineering. Austin, Texas: ACM,

1091:, assumes that neither data nor theories are discovered, but are constructed by researchers as a result of their interactions with the field and study participants. Proponents of this approach include Charmaz and Bryant. 3027:

Bryant, Antony and Charmaz, Kathy (2007) 'Grounded theory in historical perspective: An epistemological account', in Bryant, A. and Charmaz, K. (eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory. Los Angeles: Sage.

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Charmaz, Kathy (2000) 'Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods', in Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. (eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research. 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 509–535.

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Schonfeld, I. S., & Farrell, E. (2010). Qualitative methods can enrich quantitative research on occupational stress: An example from one occupational group. In D. C. Ganster & P. L. Perrewé (Eds.),

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formulate hypotheses in advance of data collection as is often the case in traditional research, otherwise the hypotheses would be ungrounded in the data. Hypotheses are supposed to emerge from the data.

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Charmaz, Kathy (2008) 'Constructionism and the grounded theory method', in Holstein, J.A. and Gubrium, J.F. (eds.), Handbook of Constructionist Research. New York: The Guilford Press. pp. 397–412.

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Mills, Jane, Bonner, Ann, & Francis, Karen (2006) 'Adopting a constructivist approach to grounded theory: Implications for research design' International Journal of Nursing Practice, 12(1): 8–13.

869:. Different researchers have identified different types of codes and encourage different methods of coding, with Strauss and Glaser both going on to extend their work with different forms of coding. 1276:

Some grounded theory researchers have produced poorly explained theories; concept generation rather than the generation of formal theory may be a more practical goal for grounded theory researchers.

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and defined it in 1990 as "a set of procedures whereby data are put back together in new ways after open coding, by making connections between categories." Glaser proposed a similar concept called

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and Chapman field notes can come from informal interviews, lectures, seminars, expert group meetings, newspaper articles, Internet mail lists, even television shows, conversations with friends etc.

1380:‘high social loss,’ ‘medium social loss,’ and ‘low social loss.’ The whole range or set of these three subcategories then represents a theoretical property of the category social loss." 825:

insights that emerge from the observations. Memoing starts with the first concept identified and continues right through the processing of all the concepts. Memoing contributes to theory building.

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Schonfeld, I.S., & Mazzola, J.J. (2013). Strengths and limitations of qualitative approaches to research in occupational health psychology. In R. Sinclair, M. Wang, & L. Tetrick (Eds.),

1308:. Engaged theory locates analytical processes within a larger theoretical framework that specifies different levels of abstraction, allowing investigators to make claims about the wider world. 2771:

Charmaz K. (2000) 'Grounded Theory: Objectivist and Constructivist Methods', in Denzin N.K. and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research, second edition, London, Sage Publications.

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Grounded theory researchers sometimes have a quasi-objective focus, emphasizing hypotheses, variables, reliability, and replicability. This multi-faceted focus leads to contradictory findings.

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that occurs when coding and comparing is recognized. The researcher is encouraged to register ideas about the ongoing study that eventually pop up in everyday situations, and awareness of the

732:. Grounded theory adherents are "less charitable when discussing reliability, calling a single method of observation continually yielding an unvarying measurement a quixotic reliability." 719:

Most researchers oriented toward grounded theory do not apply statistical methods to the qualitative data they collect. The results of grounded theory research are not reported in terms of

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Aldmouz, R. s. (2009). Grounded theory as a methodology for theory generation in information systems research. European journal of economics, finance and administrative sciences (15).

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Because grounded theories are not tied to any preexisting theory, grounded theories are often fresh and new and have the potential for novel discoveries in science and other areas.

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More recently, a critical realist version of grounded theory has been developed and applied in research devoted to developing mechanism-based explanations for social phenomena.

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Thistoll, Tony; Hooper, Val; Pauleen, David J. (2015-02-03). "Acquiring and developing theoretical sensitivity through undertaking a grounded preliminary literature review".

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Provide a rationale to justify the idea that the gap between a social science theory and empirical data should be narrowed by firmly grounding a theory in empirical research;

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In sociology, grounded theory is used to discover the meaning of spirituality in cancer patients, and how their beliefs influence their attitude towards cancer treatments.

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Thornberg, Robert & Charmaz, K. (forthcoming) 'Grounded theory and theoretical coding', in Flick, U. (ed.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative analysis. London: Sage.

2678:"Parker, L.D. and Roffey, B.H. (1997) Methodological themes: Back to the drawing board: Revisiting grounded theory and the everyday accountant's and manager's reality. 611:, the most important goal, because, by the 1960s, quantitative research methods had gained so much prestige that qualitative research had come to be seen as inadequate. 3053:

Mills, Jane, Bonner, Ann, & Francis, Karen (2006) 'The development of constructivist grounded theory', International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5 (1): 25–35.

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Grounded theory offers a complex methodology and confusing terminology rather than providing a practical orientation to research and data analysis. Also see Tolhurst.

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theory are appropriately abstract (since their goal is to explain other similar phenomenon), they are context-specific, detailed, and tightly connected to the data.

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Strauss A. and J. Corbin (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research – Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory, second edition, London, Sage Publications

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before. The literature should only be read at the sorting stage and be treated as more data to code and compared with what has already been coded and generated.

544:. The methodology involves the construction of hypotheses and theories through the collecting and analysis of data. Grounded theory involves the application of 3034:

Charmaz, Kathy (2003) 'Grounded theory', in Smith, J.A. (ed.), Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods. London: Sage. pp. 81–110.

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A Personal Journey with Grounded Theory Methodology: Kathy Charmaz in Conversation With Reiner Keller. FQS, Volume 17, No. 1, Art. 16 – January 2016.

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Bunt, Sarah (2016). "Critical realism and grounded theory: Analysing the adoption outcomes for disabled children using the retroduction framework".

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grounded theory has sometimes been criticized by qualitative researchers who take different approaches to methodology (for example, in traditional

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Fletcher-Watson, B (2013). "Toward a Grounded Dramaturgy: Using Grounded Theory to Interrogate Performance Practices in Theatre for Early Years".

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places incidents into categories and then creates one or more hierarchies out of these categories in terms of categories and subcategories or

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Grounded theory has also helped researchers in the field of information technology to study the use of computer technology in older adults.

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Clarke, however, concede that there is a degree of similarity between grounded theory and thematic analysis but prefer thematic analysis.

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Juliet Corbin; Anselm L. Strauss: "Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques". 3rd edition. Sage, 2008.

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Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: "Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques". 2nd edition. Sage, 1998.

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In business, grounded theory is used by managers to explain the ways in which organizational characteristics explain co-worker support.

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Strauss and Corbin proposed a "coding paradigm" that involved "conditions, context, action/interactional strategies and consequences."

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Research in occupational stress and wellbeing series. Vol. 8. New developments in theoretical and conceptual approaches to job stress

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Charmaz, Kathy. "Grounded Theory." The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods. 2003. SAGE Publications. 24 May. 2009.

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Theorizing is involved in all these steps. One is required to build and test theory all the way through till the end of a project.

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In psychology, grounded theory is used to understand the role of therapeutic distance for adult clients with attachment anxiety.

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understand the socially-shared meanings that underlie individuals' behaviors and the reality of the participants being studied.

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Bernard, H. R., & Ryan, G. W. (2010). Analyzing Qualitative Data: Systematic Approaches. California, CA: Sage Publication.

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Bryant, Antony (2002) 'Re-grounding grounded theory', Journal of Information Technology Theory and Application, 4(1): 25–42.

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Different approaches to grounded theory reflect different views on how preexisting theory should be used in research. In

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text is then taken and the above-mentioned steps are continued. According to Strauss and Corbin, this process is called

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Charmaz, K. (2000). Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.),

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In the next step memos are sorted, which is the key to formulating a theory that could be clearly presented to others.

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Glaser BG. The Grounded Theory Perspective I: Conceptualization Contrasted with Description. Sociology Press, 2001.

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Negative case analysis refers to the researcher looking for cases that are inconsistent with the theoretical model.

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Glaser BG. The Grounded Theory Perspective II: Description's Remodeling of Grounded Theory. Sociology Press, 2003.

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Groves, Patricia S.; Manges, Kirstin A.; Scott-Cawiezell, Jill (2016-02-08). "Handing Off Safety at the Bedside".

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The grounded theory perspective II: Description's remodeling of grounded theory. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.

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Thomas, G. and James, D. (2006). Reinventing grounded theory: some questions about theory, ground and discovery,

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Thornberg, R., & Charmaz, K. (2012). Grounded theory. In S. D. Lapan, M. Quartaroli, & F. Reimer (Eds.),

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Charmaz, K. (2008). Constructionism and the grounded theory method. In J.A. Holstein & J.F. Gubrium (Eds.),

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Thornberg, Robert (2012) 'Informed grounded theory', Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 56: 243–259.

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Stray, Viktoria; Sjøberg, Dag; Dybå, Tore (2016-01-11). "The daily stand-up meeting: A grounded theory study".

2162: 1699:"Clarification of the Blurred Boundaries between Grounded Theory and Ethnography: Differences and Similarities" 513: 2994:

Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: "Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria", in:

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Glaser BG, Strauss A. Discovery of Grounded Theory. Strategies for Qualitative Research. Sociology Press, 1967

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Research methods in occupational health psychology: State of the art in measurement, design, and data analysis

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Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1994). Grounded Theory Methodology: An Overview. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln

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Public health researchers have used grounded theory to examine nursing home preparedness needs in relation to

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medicine, law, and economics. The reach of grounded theory has extended to nursing, business, and education.

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White, Jo; Weatherall, Ann (2000). "A grounded theory analysis of older adults and information technology".

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can be used to keep patients safe. It was further developed in relation to students learning and working by

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concepts with the help of fourfold tables, diagrams, figures, or other means generating comparative power.

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of a categories. A property might be on a continuum such as from low to high, this may be referred to as a

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Glaser BG. Theoretical Sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of Grounded Theory. Sociology Press, 1978.

3102: 2483: 1965:

The travels and adventures of serendipity: A study in sociological semantics and the sociology of science

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Glaser had a background in positivism, which helped him develop a system of labeling for the purpose of

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to link those phenomena to abstract constructs and hypothesizing relationships among those constructs.

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Glaser BG, The Constant Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis. Social Problems, 12(4), 445, 1965.

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Glaser BG (ed). Gerund Grounded Theory: The Basic Social Process Dissertation. Sociology Press, 1996.

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Oliver, Carolyn (2012). "Critical Realist Grounded Theory: A New Approach for Social Work Research".

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Morse, J. M., Stern, P. N., Corbin, J., Bowers, B., Charmaz, K. & Clarke, A. E. (Eds.) (2009).

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Groves, P. S., Manges, K. A., & Scott-Cawiezell, J. (2016). Handing Off Safety at the Bedside.

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which later became known as the grounded theory method. They summarized their research in the book

1713: 631:. From its beginnings, grounded theory methods have become more prominent in fields as diverse as 2395: 1335: 679: 664: 423: 2344:"Critical realism in empirical research: employing techniques from Grounded theory methodology" 2175: 1600: 1418: 1171: 723:

findings although there may be probability statements about the relationship between concepts.

298: 245: 1650:"Philosophical Roots of Classical Grounded Theory: Its Foundations in Symbolic Interactionism" 1270:

It is inappropriate to ignore the existing theories by not paying attention to the literature.

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A later version of grounded theory called constructivist grounded theory, which is rooted in

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While collaborating on research on dying hospital patients, Glaser and Strauss developed the

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Glaser BG. The Grounded Theory Perspective III: Theoretical coding. Sociology Press, 2005.

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Once the data are collected, grounded theory analysis involves the following basic steps:

8: 2941:

Glaser BG (ed). Grounded Theory 1984–1994. A Reader (two volumes). Sociology Press, 1995.

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Anselm L. Strauss; Leonard Schatzman; Rue Bucher; Danuta Ehrlich & Melvin Sabshin:

2911: 2736:, Sage Publications, London, 2006; and P. James, Y. Nadarajah, K. Haive, and V. Stead, 2568: 2517: 2458: 2366: 2324: 2247: 2195: 2012: 1623: 1578: 1456: 587: 379: 303: 116: 2603: 2593: 2560: 2552: 2521: 2462: 2370: 2328: 2016: 2004: 1931: 1904: 1582: 1312: 1233:

methodology and have influenced researchers from varied disciplines and professions.

1143: 724: 699:"What is the main problem of the participants, and how are they trying to solve it?" 620: 496: 404: 389: 347: 330: 265: 250: 66: 61: 23: 2915: 2572: 2199: 1861:"Contextual Positioning: Using Documents as Extant Data in Grounded Theory Research" 1627: 2903: 2685: 2544: 2509: 2448: 2440: 2358: 2316: 2289: 2262: 2226: 2187: 2071: 1996: 1872: 1615: 1570: 1448: 1360: 1205: 1192: 1157: 962: 367: 335: 325: 293: 106: 71: 2938:

Glaser BG (ed). More Grounded Theory Methodology: A Reader. Sociology Press, 1994.

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Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide for Management, Business and Market Researchers

2738:

Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea

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Glaser BG. Doing Grounded Theory – Issues and Discussions. Sociology Press, 1998.

2889:"Re-inventing grounded theory: some questions about theory, ground and discovery" 2266: 2191: 1898: 1574: 1355: 1305: 1230: 374: 313: 225: 220: 215: 56: 49: 39: 2663:

Popper, K. (1963). Science: Conjectures and refutations. In K. R. Popper (Ed.),

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The grounded theory perspective I: Conceptualization contrasted with description

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Strauss's version of grounded theory has been criticized in several other ways:

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It provides explicit, sequential guidelines for conducting qualitative research.

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Charmaz, Kathy (forthcoming) Constructing Grounded Theory 2nd ed. London: Sage.

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A turning point in the acceptance of the theory came after the publication of

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It provides ways to streamline and integrate data collection and analysis and

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Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: "Grounded Theory in Practice", Sage (1997)

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Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis

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https://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/2541/3936#g4

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Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology.

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be rich in ideas but the connections among concepts are likely to be weak.

894: 619:. Their work on dying helped establish the influence of grounded theory in 235: 2721:

Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 13

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It offers specific strategies for handling the analytic phases of inquiry.

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Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques

2587: 2453: 2248:"Grounded theory and leadership research: A critical realist perspective" 1838:

Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques

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Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques

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Identifying anchors that allow the key points of the data to be gathered

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Grounded Theory Method: Sociology's quest for exclusive items of inquiry

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Theoretical sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of grounded theory

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Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research

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G. Allan, "A Critique of Using Grounded Theory as a Research Method,"

1421:& Barry A. Turner, "Grounded Theory and Organizational Research," 2975:

The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Strategies for Qualitative Research

2213:

Ramalho, Rodrigo; Adams, Peter; Huggard, Peter; Hoare, Karen (2015).

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The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research

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Learning and working : the occupational socialization of nurses

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Grounded theory research: a design framework for novice researchers

1980: 1594: 1592: 283: 81: 76: 31: 2215:"Literature Review and Constructivist Grounded Theory Methodology" 3073: 3037:

Charmaz, Kathy (2006) Constructing Grounded Theory. London: Sage.

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scholarly article; however, some guidelines have been suggested.

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Qualitative Research: The Essential Guide to Theory and Practice

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Mey, G. & Mruck, K. (Eds.) (2007). Grounded Theory Reader.

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Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory After the Postmodern Turn

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Conjectures and refutations: The growth of scientific knowledge

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The private lives and professional identity of medical students

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Grounded theory methods have earned their place as a standard

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existing theory. Merton also coauthored (with Elinor Barber)

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is a systematic methodology that has been largely applied to

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Qualitative research: An introduction to methods and designs

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Chun Tie, Ylona, Birks, Melanie, and Francis, Karen (2019)

2534: 1437:"Perceived Identity: Applying Grounded Theory in Libraries" 2734:

Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing theory Back In

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It legitimizes qualitative research as scientific inquiry.

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Aldiabat, Khaldoun; Navenec, Carole-Lynne (4 July 2011).

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of the method is also necessary to achieve good results.

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Journal of Information Technology Theory and Application

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Grounded theory methods, according to Glaser, emphasize

2133:(pp. 41–67). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley/Jossey–Bass. 1995:(2). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 619–636. 1859:

Ralph, N.; Birks, M.; Chapman, Y. (29 September 2014).

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of similar content that allows the data to be grouped

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Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 10

2641: 1986: 2414:"Ethnography and Grounded Theory: A Happy Marriage?" 2351:

International Journal of Social Research Methodology

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Grounded theory § The use of preexisting theory

2060:"The development of constructivist grounded theory" 1823: 1053: 2143:Bryant, A (2002). "Re-grounding grounded theory". 2057: 1242: 1212:Grounded theory has further significance because: 2851:Developing Grounded Theory: The Second Generation 1858: 1598: 1398:See the section "Codes, categories, concepts" of 1280:Grounded theory was developed during an era when 1115:(CR) is a philosophical approach associated with 1078: 3109: 2430: 2094:(2nd ed., pp. 509–535). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1892: 1890: 1888: 1601:"The methodological dynamism of grounded theory" 1543: 1541: 1539: 1537: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1033: 2499: 1897:Antony Bryant; Kathy Charmaz (23 August 2007). 1795: 1793: 1779: 1777: 1775: 1773: 1771: 1680: 1678: 1647: 1560: 1497:Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 1170:, grounded theory has been used to examine how 1156:, grounded theory has been used to study daily 1785:Doing grounded theory – Issues and discussions 1187:The benefits of using grounded theory include 650: 2245: 1885: 1706:Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry 1528: 1122: 1011:No pre-research literature review and no talk 514: 2740:, Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 2012 2180:Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 2120:(pp. 397–412). New York: The Guilford Press. 2064:International Journal of Qualitative Methods 2033:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1811: 1809: 1790: 1768: 1756: 1743: 1675: 1608:International Journal of Qualitative Methods 865:than a code, which a code being more like a 2886: 2874:Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences 2791:Bryant, A. & Charmaz, K. (Eds.) (2007) 2058:Mills, J.; Bonner, A.; Francis, K. (2006). 1643: 1641: 1639: 1637: 665:symbolic interactionist branch of sociology 2982:Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists 2881:Qualitative analysis for social scientists 2766:Qualitative data analysis and introduction 2704:Qualitative data analysis and introduction 2031:Qualitative analysis for social scientists 1599:Ralph, N.; Birks, M.; Chapman, Y. (2015). 1434: 1061:Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists 521: 507: 38: 2452: 2408: 2230: 2173: 2075: 1876: 1806: 1691: 1510:Fresh starts: Men and women after divorce 1484:Handbook of Qualitative Research. 1st ed. 1428: 1423:The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 972:The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity 552:used in traditional scientific research. 3089:(Supporting grounded theory researchers) 2869:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2753:, 77–101. doi:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa. 2386:"Core Emlements Part 2. Grounded Theory" 2041: 2039: 1967:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1836:Strauss, A.L., & Corbin, J. (1990). 1634: 1191:, the discovery of novel phenomena, and 999:and/or figures to optimize readability. 806:that detail the subject of the research 452:Library and information science software 2968:Psychiatric ideologies and institutions 2826:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 2809:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 2768:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 2706:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 1963:Merton, R.K., & Barber, E. (2003). 655:Grounded theory combines traditions in 597:. The three aims of the book were to: 3110: 2279: 2246:Kempster, Stephen; Parry, Ken (2011). 2142: 1300:One alternative to grounded theory is 956: 447:Geographic information system software 2973:Barney G. Glaser; Anselm L. Strauss: 2751:Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3 2630: 2628: 2626: 2585: 2341: 2036: 1547:Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967) 712:become the constituents of a theory. 548:. The methodology contrasts with the 2896:British Educational Research Journal 2819:SAGE Open Medicine, 7. pp. 1–8. 2793:The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory 2636:British Educational Research Journal 2306: 2118:Handbook of constructionist research 1900:The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory 1146:refugees sheltered in nursing homes. 961:Building on the work of sociologist 604:Provide a logic for grounded theory; 2833:. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. 2654:(pp. 268-289). New York: Routledge. 1924:Savin-Baden, M.; Major, C. (2013). 1803:. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. 1787:. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. 1753:. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. 1688:. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. 1106: 792:that are used to generate a theory 13: 2987:Anselm L. Strauss; Juliet Corbin: 2831:Basics of grounded theory analysis 2800:Grounded Theory: A practical Guide 2785: 2623: 2282:The British Journal of Social Work 1952:Social theory and social structure 1930:. London and New York: Routledge. 1686:Basics of grounded theory analysis 1020:No pre-research literature review. 14: 3139: 3103:Grounded Theory Research Tutorial 3067: 2853:. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press. 2798:Birks, M. & Mills, J. (2015) 2383: 3003:Continual Permutations of Action 2398:from the original on 2021-12-13. 2092:Handbook of qualitative research 1525:. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1499:, vol. 2, no. 1 (2003) pp. 1-10. 1054:Split in methodology and methods 1040:The Discovery of Grounded Theory 594:The Discovery of Grounded Theory 16:Qualitative research methodology 2743: 2726: 2709: 2696: 2670: 2657: 2614: 2579: 2528: 2493: 2469: 2433:Journal of Systems and Software 2424: 2402: 2377: 2335: 2300: 2273: 2239: 2206: 2167: 2155: 2136: 2123: 2110: 2097: 2084: 2051: 2023: 1970: 1957: 1944: 1917: 1852: 1843: 1392: 1383: 1373: 933:component of grounded theory. 3019:Constructivist grounded theory 2887:Thomas, G.; James, D. (2006). 1954:. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press. 1554: 1515: 1502: 1489: 1412: 1079:Constructivist grounded theory 739: 1: 3074:The Grounded Theory Institute 2363:10.1080/13645579.2018.1503400 1447:(1). University of Florence. 1425:, vol. 22, no. 2 (1986), 141. 1405: 1236: 1034:The use of preexisting theory 564: 2802:. London: SAGE Publications. 2267:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.12.010 2192:10.1080/00313831.2011.581686 2105:Constructing grounded theory 1575:10.1080/08929092.2013.837706 892:Strauss and Corbin proposed 730:measurement-related validity 678:Strauss had a background in 7: 2998:, 19. Jg, S. 418 ff. (1990) 2872:Stebbins, Robert A. (2001) 2418:Acr North American Advances 1712:. July 2011. Archived from 1319: 1182: 1089:constructivist epistemology 651:Philosophical underpinnings 583:constant comparative method 550:hypothetico-deductive model 10: 3144: 2996:Zeitschrift für Soziologie 2876:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 2859:Historical Social Research 2477:"Grounded Theory Research" 2176:"Informed grounded theory" 2077:10.1177/160940690600500103 1840:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1240: 1123:Use in various disciplines 990: 977: 920: 693: 2908:10.1080/01411920600989412 2779:Clinical nursing research 2690:10.1108/09513579710166730 2537:Clinical Nursing Research 2445:10.1016/j.jss.2016.01.004 2001:10.1007/s11135-015-0167-3 1740:Glaser & Strauss 1967 1341:Grounded practical theory 844: 721:statistically significant 663:, and, particularly, the 474:Qualitative data analysis 2667:. New York: Basic Books. 2549:10.1177/1054773816630535 2321:10.1177/1473325016664572 2255:The Leadership Quarterly 1878:10.1177/2158244014552425 1620:10.1177/1609406915611576 1521:Broadhead, R.S. (1983). 1512:. New York: Basic Books. 1366: 1311:Braun and Clarke regard 788:Broad groups of similar 2862:, Suppl. 19. 337 pages. 2586:Melia, Kath M. (1987). 2514:10.1080/036012700407857 2502:Educational Gerontology 2309:Qualitative Social Work 1435:Faggiolani, C. (2011). 1336:Formal concept analysis 1172:change-of-shift reports 947:preconscious processing 945:In grounded theory the 680:symbolic interactionism 3118:Psychological theories 3093:Grounded Theory Review 3087:Grounded Theory Online 2232:10.17169/fqs-16.3.2313 1989:Quality & Quantity 1871:(3): 215824401455242. 1657:The Qualitative Report 1614:(4): 160940691561157. 1419:Patricia Yancey Martin 1048:substantive literature 353:Inferential statistics 299:Descriptive statistics 246:Human subject research 2836:Goulding, C. (2002). 2715:Tolhurst, E. (2012). 2592:. London: Tavistock. 2174:Thornberg, R (2012). 1950:Merton, R.K. (1949). 1903:. SAGE Publications. 1799:Glaser, B.G. (1978). 1783:Glaser, B.G. (1998). 1762:Glaser, B.G. (2003). 1749:Glaser, B.G. (2001). 1563:Youth Theatre Journal 1256:qualitative inquiry. 657:positivist philosophy 137:Philosophical schools 3123:Qualitative research 2879:Strauss, A. (1987). 2865:Oktay, J. S. (2012) 2805:Charmaz, K. (2000). 2795:. Los Angeles: Sage. 2489:on 10 December 2014. 2410:Pettigrew, Simone F. 2342:Hoddy, Eric (2018). 2103:Charmaz, K. (2006). 2029:Strauss, A. (1987). 1508:Cauhapé, E. (1983). 1453:10.4403/jlis.it-4592 1346:Qualitative research 1154:software engineering 967:serendipity patterns 912:theoretical sampling 875:basic social process 609:qualitative research 556:ideas/concepts with 538:qualitative research 462:Reference management 412:Scientific modelling 154:Critical rationalism 3001:Anselm L. Strauss: 2980:Anselm L. Strauss: 2829:Glaser, B. (1992). 2822:Clarke, A. (2005). 2781:, 1054773816630535. 2764:Grbich, C. (2007). 2702:Grbich, C. (2007). 2294:10.1093/bjsw/bcr064 1684:Glaser, B. (1992). 1459:on 15 December 2019 1282:qualitative methods 1189:ecological validity 957:Serendipity pattern 926:Theoretical memoing 900:theoretical coding. 862:Constant comparison 607:Legitimize careful 546:inductive reasoning 442:Argument technology 3083:(Glaser tradition) 3079:2004-12-02 at the 2961:Strauss and Corbin 1719:on 2 December 2017 1551:. Chicago: Aldine. 886:substantive coding 617:Awareness of Dying 588:Awareness of Dying 436:Tools and software 380:Secondary research 304:Discourse analysis 3044:pp. 127–154. 2638:, 32, 6, 767–795. 1937:978-0-415-67478-2 1910:978-1-4462-7572-6 1313:thematic analysis 1158:stand-up meetings 1144:Hurricane Katrina 810: 809: 725:Internal validity 621:medical sociology 542:social scientists 531: 530: 497:Philosophy portal 405:Systematic review 390:Literature review 348:Historical method 331:Social experiment 266:Scientific method 251:Narrative inquiry 102:Interdisciplinary 96:Research strategy 3135: 3128:Research methods 2919: 2893: 2754: 2747: 2741: 2730: 2724: 2713: 2707: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2674: 2668: 2661: 2655: 2648: 2639: 2632: 2621: 2618: 2612: 2611: 2583: 2577: 2576: 2532: 2526: 2525: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2488: 2482:. 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