279:
authority to provide protection, each city had to provide its own protection for citizens - both inside the city walls, and outside. Thus towns formed communes which were a legal basis for turning the cities into self-governing corporations. In most cases the development of communes was connected with that of the cities. However, there were rural communes, notably in France and
England, that formed to protect the common interests of villagers. At their heart, communes were sworn allegiances of mutual defense. When a commune formed, all participating members gathered and swore an oath in a public ceremony, promising to defend each other in times of trouble, and to maintain the peace within the city proper.
414:: those who fight (the nobles), those who pray (the clergy), and those who work (the peasants). In theory, this was a balance between spiritual and secular peers, with the third order providing labour for the other two. The urban communes were a break in this order. The Church and King both had mixed reactions to communes. On the one hand, they agreed safety and protection from lawless nobles was in everyone's best interest. The commune's intention was to keep the peace through the threat of revenge, and the Church was sympathetic to the end result of peace.
25:
425:, violence begets violence, were generally not acceptable to Church or King. There was an idea among some that communes threatened the medieval social order. Only the noble lords were allowed by custom to fight, and ostensibly the merchant townspeople were workers, not warriors. As such, the nobility and the clergy sometimes accepted communes, but other times did not. One of the most famous cases of a commune being suppressed and the resulting defiant urban revolt occurred in the French town of
510:, in common with many other montane communities, enjoyed far greater liberties than those enjoyed in the north of France. The Counts of Foix granted these villages charters recognising their right to governance and both civil and criminal justice administered by their own consuls, and exemption from fees on the use of forests, waters, mines, pastures, mountains, meadows and tolls on trading with other villages. They even successfully won their case against payment of taxes to King
82:
1941:
1931:
560:
1951:
1006:
The merchants of Pskov and
Novgorod, as well as their partners from Livonian cities, formed the local communes of sworn brothers, who were responsible for their brethren's deeds. Pskov had some other pre-conditions for becoming a commune (a central power vacuum, parish organization, etc.) but it is
341:(Southern France) by 1300, and this number increased rapidly in the next 2 centuries due to the financial demands of city wall-building. Many were granted the rights to assembly, and executive power was often concentrated in one elected official, the mayor or first consul, with an advisory body of
278:
provided protection from direct assault at the price of corporate interference on the pettiest levels, but once a townsman left the city walls, he (for women scarcely travelled) was at the mercy of often violent and lawless nobles in the countryside. Because much of medieval Europe lacked central
522:
and under the suzerainty of the
Viscounts of Bearn. The rights of the republic was confirmed by King Louis XIII when he united Bearn to France. These communities thrived in natural isolation and lack of seigneurial interest in interference, particularly in the Western Pyrenees such as the Vallée
542:
Some
Southern-European medieval communes were influenced by the Italian precedent, but many northern ones (and even the Swiss communes north of Gotthard Pass) may well have developed concurrently and independently from the Italian ones. Only a few of these medieval rural communes ever attained
693:
always had to face struggles with other powerful players: the land princes on the one hand, but also the cities and communes on the other hand. The emperors thus invariably fought political (not always military) battles to strengthen their position and that of the imperial monarchy. In the
443:
The development of medieval rural communes arose more from a need to collaborate to manage the commons than out of defensive needs. In times of a weak central government, communes typically formed to ensure the safety on the roads through their territory to enable commerce
949:
West
European contemporaries, being quite familiar with the particularities of the Novgorod political system, recognized it as an urban commune, a community, and described it in the same terms that they applied to their own (Burgundian or northern German) city
263:, the freedom to conduct and regulate their own affairs and security from arbitrary taxation and harassment from the bishop, abbot, or count in whose jurisdiction these obscure and ignoble social outsiders lay. This was a long process of struggling to obtain
718:
but also the rural communal leagues that had sprung up. Most leagues of towns were subsequently dissolved, sometimes forcibly, and where refounded, their political influence was much reduced. Nevertheless, some of these communes (as
747:
argued that the elements of mutual aid and mutual defense expressed in the medieval commune and its guild system were the same sentiments of collective self-defense apparent in modern communism and socialism.
1291:
1904. 14th-century statutes of a
Piedmontese commune (Latin and English translations), express the nature of the commune in vivid detail, productions of medieval society and the medieval personality.
107:
had sworn allegiances of mutual defense (both physical defense and of traditional freedoms) among the citizens of a town or city. These took many forms and varied widely in organization and makeup.
971:
963:
914:
267:
that guaranteed such basics as the right to hold a market. Such charters were often purchased at exorbitant rates, or granted, not by the local power, but by a king or by the
875:
310:
was ruled by communal coalitions of cities, knights, farmer republics, prince-bishops and the large domains of the imperial lords. In eastern Europe, the splintering of
372:. After the Middle Ages, selection of officials was changed from election to sortition, in order to resolve factional conflict. In Cantabria, seafaring towns led by
110:
Communes are first recorded in the late 11th and early 12th centuries, thereafter becoming a widespread phenomenon. They had greater development in central-northern
1394:
1760:
1896:
302:
and elsewhere. The
English state was already very centralized, so the communal movement mainly manifested itself in parishes, craftsmen's and merchants'
1409:
591:), they were absorbed by monarchical states. But in northern and central Italy, some medieval communes developed into independent and powerful
1486:
236:, some new towns were founded upon long-distance trade, where the staple was the woolen cloth-making industry. The sites for these
579:
During the 11th century in northern Italy a new political and social structure emerged. In most places where communes arose (e.g.
731:) were able to survive in Germany for centuries and became almost independent city-state vassals to the Holy Roman Emperors (see
456:. The Swiss had numerous written acts of alliance: for each new canton that joined the confederacy, a new contract was written.
1364:
1209:
670:
and others were able to create stable states at the expenses of their neighbors, some of which lasted until modern times. In
1288:
547:, where they would have been subject only to the king or emperor; most still remained subjects of some more or less distant
598:
The breakaway from their feudal overlords by these communes occurred in the late 12th century and 13th century, during the
1820:
1795:
1735:
228:, most of the old Roman cities had survived—even if grass grew in their streets—largely as administrative centers for a
1911:
1028:
1954:
1916:
1446:
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1146:
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989:
932:
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68:
46:
39:
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movement, for example. Some communes disrupted the order of medieval society in that the methods the commune used,
1414:
966:(2017). "The city of Pskov in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries: Baltic trade and institutional growth". In
1780:
1720:
1692:
1451:
1063:
699:
1866:
1697:
290:, which had the most urbanized population of Europe at the time. It then spread in the early 12th century to
259:
and bandits, part of the motivation for gathering behind communal walls, but also strove to establish their
448:). One of the more successful of these medieval communities was the one in the alpine valleys north of the
306:
and monasteries. State officialdom expanded in
England and France from the 12th century onwards, while the
1876:
977:
The
Routledge Handbook of Maritime Trade Around Europe 1300-1600: Commercial Networks and Urban Autonomy
920:
The
Routledge Handbook of Maritime Trade Around Europe 1300-1600: Commercial Networks and Urban Autonomy
1975:
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1861:
1825:
1667:
1569:
1299:
1282:
407:
1594:
1357:
480:
909:
Lukin, Pavel V. (2017). "Novgorod: trade, politics and mentalities in the time of independence". In
1980:
1845:
1079:
111:
33:
1549:
1519:
1271:
599:
1325:
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1436:
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on the Mediterranean sea (in 1204 Venice conquered three-eights of the Byzantine Empire in the
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50:
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1574:
453:
1944:
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When autonomy was won through violent uprising and overthrow, the commune was often called
8:
1830:
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168:
1312:
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1934:
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1399:
777:
732:
690:
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603:
544:
209:
127:
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or Holy Brotherhood was formed, in which all municipalities sent representatives to a
208:
began to gravitate towards walled population centers, as advances in agriculture (the
1930:
1672:
1642:
1632:
1622:
1539:
1529:
1514:
1381:
1205:
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568:
472:
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319:
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264:
123:
539:, signed treaties with other villages generally meant to govern access to pastures.
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One in four urban communities in France were under the administration of mayors and
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1775:
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1652:
1609:
1501:
1419:
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1187:
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185:
139:
1901:
1815:
1785:
1509:
1426:
1243:
975:
918:
744:
715:
619:
548:
468:
1296:
The Struggle for Power in Medieval Italy: Structures of Political Rule, 400-1400
1099:
Urban and Rural Communities in Medieval France Provence and Languedoc, 1000-1500
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1750:
1704:
1657:
1637:
1481:
1404:
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The commune movement started in the 10th century, with a few earlier ones like
271:, who came to hope to enlist the towns as allies in order to centralize power.
217:
201:
147:
1247:
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of counts, bishops or territorial abbots. Such towns were also founded in the
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or for the local representative of a distant kingly or imperial power. In the
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or open council of property-owners. The larger towns delegated authority to
1730:
1627:
1431:
1215:
1164:
The Cambridge Medieval History - Vol. 5 ; Contest of Empire and Papacy
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against the Holy Roman Emperors and defeated them, gaining independence (
445:
275:
104:
1456:
1342:
350:
In medieval Spain, urban communities were self-governing through their
225:
115:
368:(law officers), who managed the town and the surrounding lands as one
252:. Other towns were simply market villages, local centers of exchange.
1765:
1534:
1096:
724:
720:
564:
532:
531:, as well as the independent legislative assemblies in the Valley of
507:
347:. Election was often restricted to the wealthy local merchant elite.
249:
119:
1162:
J. B. Bury; J. R. Tanner; C. W. Previté-Orton; Z. N. Brooke (1926).
1007:
likely that trade relations favoured its communal structure as well.
286:(possibly 889), and gained strength in the 11th century in northern
81:
1800:
1677:
1554:
772:
588:
559:
484:
417:
However, the Church had its own ways to enforce peace, such as the
221:
205:
1279:
The Florentine Magnates: Lineage and Faction in a Medieval Commune
1121:
283:
1441:
1055:
728:
647:
488:
295:
268:
229:
90:
1289:
Sella, Pietro, "The Statutes of the Commune of Bugelle (Biella)"
161:(that which is common, community, state), substantive noun from
667:
651:
580:
519:
500:
492:
373:
291:
256:
238:
212:) resulted in greater productivity and intense competition. In
101:
1023:. Macmillan International Higher Education. pp. 185–192.
663:
659:
655:
643:
607:
315:
303:
299:
287:
244:
146:) appears in Latin records in various forms. They come from
554:
426:
1313:
Guelph University, "The Urban Past: IV. The Medieval City"
499:), and also in Sweden and Norway. The colonization of the
398:
which would coordinate law enforcement to protect trade.
255:
Such townspeople needed physical protection from lawless
1338:
Itinerari medievali: risorse per lo studio del Medioevo
840:
Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade
805:] (in Italian). Rome: Newton & Compton editori.
93:, bear witness to the factional strife within communes.
824:] (in Italian). Roma: Biblioteca di storia patria.
799:
Le Repubbliche Marinare. Amalfi, Pisa, Genova, Venezia
382:(Marsh brotherhood), an organisation similar to the
803:
The Maritime Republics. Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, Venice
1136:
535:, or the Vallée d'Azun. These communities, called
518:was another medieval Pyrenean republic, based in
1967:
1268:The Italian City-State: From Commune to Signoria
1166:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 654–655.
1298:, translator, Rosalind Brown Jensen (New York:
1126:. Macmillan & Company Limited. p. 398.
242:towns, more often than not, were the fortified
1222:
1097:John Victor Drendel, Kathryn Reyerson (1998).
467:, there were similar rural alpine communes in
452:. This later resulted in the formation of the
1358:
475:. Other such rural communes developed in the
393:
387:
377:
363:
357:
351:
460:
342:
336:
330:
200:During the 10th century in several parts of
1122:Findlay Muirhead, Marcel Monmarché (1926).
709:
703:
179:
162:
156:
150:
1365:
1351:
961:
1242:
796:
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
1372:
815:
558:
555:Evolution in Italy and decline in Europe
80:
32:This article includes a list of general
1084:The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042-1216
1052:Spain, 1469-1714: A Society of Conflict
1042:
1040:
980:. Routledge History Handbooks. London:
923:. Routledge History Handbooks. London:
852:
834:
138:The English and French word "commune" (
1968:
1186:
1078:
870:
1346:
1046:
1018:
908:
622:, 1248). Meanwhile, the republics of
1037:
18:
1950:
1395:Decline of the Western Roman Empire
877:The Civilization of the Middle Ages
130:, independent from local nobility.
16:European commune in the Middle Ages
13:
1487:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire
1309:(3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1988.)
974:; Wubs-Mrozewicz, Justyna (eds.).
917:; Wubs-Mrozewicz, Justyna (eds.).
678:, autonomous communes were rarer,
471:, but these were destroyed by the
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
1992:
1917:Historiography in the Middle Ages
1319:
1249:Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution
432:
335:(Northern France) or consuls and
1949:
1940:
1939:
1929:
23:
1415:Christianity in the Middle Ages
1410:Decline of Hellenistic religion
1236:
1230:Sardinian Historical Dictionary
1180:
1155:
1141:. Books on Demand. p. 68.
1130:
1115:
1090:
1072:
682:in Sardinia being one example.
401:
1693:Crisis of the late Middle Ages
1012:
955:
902:
864:
846:
828:
809:
790:
738:
705:conjurationes, confederationes
523:d'Aspe (governed by their own
410:, society was composed of the
1:
1867:Disability in the Middle Ages
1540:Rise of the Republic of Genoa
1472:Rise of the Venetian Republic
783:
1252:. London: William Heinemann.
1086:(4th ed.). p. 261.
714:, meaning in particular the
642:). Cities such as Florence,
133:
7:
1137:Count Henry Russel (2023).
1101:. BRILL. pp. 188–190.
751:
634:were able to conquer their
10:
1997:
1668:Rise of the Ottoman Empire
1307:The Italian City-Republics
1300:Cambridge University Press
1283:Princeton University Press
1260:
816:Lodolini, Armando (1967).
506:Pyrenean villages such as
436:
195:
167:(common). Ultimately, the
1925:
1854:
1713:
1608:
1595:Mongol invasion of Europe
1500:
1380:
1305:Waley, Donald, 1969 etc.
1294:Tabacco, Giovanni, 1989.
602:between the Pope and the
483:or Briançonnais), in the
481:Republic of the Escartons
379:Hermandad de las Marismas
314:allowed the formation of
1054:(illustrated ed.).
858:Mohammed and Charlemagne
822:The republics of the sea
674:, which then formed the
491:), in northern Germany (
1550:Investiture Controversy
1520:Second Bulgarian Empire
1327:Encyclopædia Britannica
1272:Oxford University Press
818:Le repubbliche del mare
600:Investiture Controversy
362:(town councillors) and
175:(to change, exchange).
53:more precise citations.
1907:Post-classical history
1663:Fall of Constantinople
1570:Capet–Plantagenet feud
1437:First Bulgarian Empire
1277:Lansing, Carol, 1992.
1198:History of Switzerland
1193:Geschichte der Schweiz
1019:Small, Graeme (2009).
797:Benvenuti, G. (1989).
710:
704:
576:
487:, in northern France (
479:, in the French Alps (
461:
419:Peace and Truce of God
394:
388:
378:
364:
358:
352:
343:
337:
331:
189:
180:
163:
157:
151:
143:
122:. At the same time in
94:
1266:Jones, Philip. 1997.
562:
454:Old Swiss Confederacy
84:
1887:Medieval reenactment
1683:Renaissance Humanism
1590:Medieval Warm Period
1560:Republic of Florence
1374:European Middle Ages
1139:Pau and the Pyrenees
1021:Late Medieval France
982:Taylor & Francis
925:Taylor & Francis
322:(1136-1478) and the
114:, where they became
85:Defensive towers at
1600:Kingdom of Portugal
1467:Old Church Slavonic
1452:Anglo-Saxon England
768:Italian city-states
696:Golden Bull of 1356
680:Republic of Sassari
563:The defence of the
512:Philip IV of France
386:. In the 1470s the
169:Proto-Indo-European
1781:In popular culture
1746:Crusading movement
1618:Hundred Years' War
1477:Civitas Schinesghe
1462:Carolingian Empire
1447:Kingdom of Croatia
1400:Barbarian kingdoms
1331:"Medieval commune"
778:Free imperial city
733:Free imperial city
616:battles of Legnano
604:Holy Roman Emperor
577:
545:imperial immediacy
459:Besides the Swiss
318:communes like the
210:three-field system
95:
1976:Medieval communes
1963:
1962:
1872:Basic topics list
1673:Swiss mercenaries
1623:Wars of the Roses
1530:Kingdom of Poland
1515:Holy Roman Empire
1382:Early Middle Ages
1211:978-3-17-019912-5
1202:Kohlhammer Verlag
872:Cantor, Norman F.
687:Holy Roman Empire
676:Kingdom of Sicily
569:battle of Legnano
503:also is related.
473:House of Habsburg
463:Eidgenossenschaft
320:Novgorod Republic
308:Holy Roman Empire
155:, plural form of
118:based on partial
98:Medieval communes
79:
78:
71:
1988:
1953:
1952:
1943:
1942:
1933:
1892:Medieval studies
1736:Church and State
1610:Late Middle Ages
1502:High Middle Ages
1420:Christianization
1390:Migration Period
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184:(a conspiracy) (
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