766:, a model is a task-driven, purposeful simplification and abstraction of a perception of reality, shaped by physical, legal, and cognitive constraints. It is task-driven because a model is captured with a certain question or task in mind. Simplifications leave all the known and observed entities and their relation out that are not important for the task. Abstraction aggregates information that is important but not needed in the same detail as the object of interest. Both activities, simplification, and abstraction, are done purposefully. However, they are done based on a perception of reality. This perception is already a
61:
33:
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in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and form relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime. There are two types of system models: 1) discrete in which the variables change instantaneously at separate points in time and, 2) continuous where the state variables change continuously with respect to time.
616:... the sciences do not try to explain, they hardly even try to interpret, they mainly make models. By a model is meant a mathematical construct which, with the addition of certain verbal interpretations, describes observed phenomena. The justification of such a mathematical construct is solely and precisely that it is expected to work—that is, correctly to describe phenomena from a reasonably wide area.
653:
675:, that is, simplified reflections of reality that, despite being approximations, can be extremely useful. Building and disputing models is fundamental to the scientific enterprise. Complete and true representation may be impossible, but scientific debate often concerns which is the better model for a given task, e.g., which is the more accurate climate model for seasonal forecasting.
1264:
1260:, generally referred to as "M&S". M&S has a spectrum of applications which range from concept development and analysis, through experimentation, measurement, and verification, to disposal analysis. Projects and programs may use hundreds of different simulations, simulators and model analysis tools.
895:
A model is evaluated first and foremost by its consistency to empirical data; any model inconsistent with reproducible observations must be modified or rejected. One way to modify the model is by restricting the domain over which it is credited with having high validity. A case in point is
Newtonian
828:
is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. In general, a system is a construct or collection of different elements that together can produce results not obtainable by the elements alone. The concept of an 'integrated whole' can also be stated
770:
in itself, as it comes with a physical constraint. There are also constraints on what we are able to legally observe with our current tools and methods, and cognitive constraints that limit what we are able to explain with our current theories. This model comprises the concepts, their behavior, and
1676:
Nowadays there are some 40 magazines about scientific modelling which offer all kinds of international forums. Since the 1960s there is a strongly growing number of books and magazines about specific forms of scientific modelling. There is also a lot of discussion about scientific modelling in the
791:
is a way to implement the model, often employed when the model is too complex for the analytical solution. A steady-state simulation provides information about the system at a specific instant in time (usually at equilibrium, if such a state exists). A dynamic simulation provides information over
837:
Modelling is the process of generating a model as a conceptual representation of some phenomenon. Typically a model will deal with only some aspects of the phenomenon in question, and two models of the same phenomenon may be essentially different—that is to say, that the differences between them
717:
For the scientist, a model is also a way in which the human thought processes can be amplified. For instance, models that are rendered in software allow scientists to leverage computational power to simulate, visualize, manipulate and gain intuition about the entity, phenomenon, or process being
779:. This requires more choices, such as numerical approximations or the use of heuristics. Despite all these epistemological and computational constraints, simulation has been recognized as the third pillar of scientific methods: theory building, simulation, and experimentation.
896:
physics, which is highly useful except for the very small, the very fast, and the very massive phenomena of the universe. However, a fit to empirical data alone is not sufficient for a model to be accepted as valid. Factors important in evaluating a model include:
931:
is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of man. Examples from history include
877:. A model makes accurate predictions when its assumptions are valid, and might well not make accurate predictions when its assumptions do not hold. Such assumptions are often the point with which older theories are succeeded by new ones (the
841:
Such differences may be due to differing requirements of the model's end users, or to conceptual or aesthetic differences among the modelers and to contingent decisions made during the modelling process. Considerations that may influence the
964:, space mapping aligns (maps) a very fast coarse model with its related expensive-to-compute fine model so as to avoid direct expensive optimization of the fine model. The alignment process iteratively refines a "mapped" coarse model (
585:. It requires selecting and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in the real world and then developing a model to replicate a system with those features. Different types of models may be used for different purposes, such as
807:
is a fundamental and sometimes intangible notion covering the recognition, observation, nature, and stability of patterns and relationships of entities. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed
959:
refers to a methodology that employs a "quasi-global" modelling formulation to link companion "coarse" (ideal or low-fidelity) with "fine" (practical or high-fidelity) models of different complexities. In
1267:
Example of the integrated use of
Modelling and Simulation in Defence life cycle management. The modelling and simulation in this image is represented in the center of the image with the three containers.
1393:(2009) state: "Philosophers are acknowledging the importance of models with increasing attention and are probing the assorted roles that models play in scientific practice". Source: Frigg, Roman and
751:
Models are typically used when it is either impossible or impractical to create experimental conditions in which scientists can directly measure outcomes. Direct measurement of outcomes under
1786:, in: R. Hegselmann et al. (eds.), Modelling and Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View, Theory and Decision Library. Dordrecht: Kluwer 1996, 77-100.
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608:
Modelling is an essential and inseparable part of many scientific disciplines, each of which has its own ideas about specific types of modelling. The following was said by
858:, discrete versus continuous time, etc. In any case, users of a model need to understand the assumptions made that are pertinent to its validity for a given use.
1415:
Namdar, Bahadir; Shen, Ji (2015-02-18). "Modelling-Oriented
Assessment in K-12 Science Education: A synthesis of research from 1980 to 2013 and new directions".
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Oberkampf, W. L., DeLand, S. M., Rutherford, B. M., Diegert, K. V., & Alvin, K. F. (2002). Error and uncertainty in modelling and simulation.
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714:. Predictions or other statements drawn from such a formal system mirror or map the real world only insofar as these scientific models are true.
1271:
The figure shows how modelling and simulation is used as a central part of an integrated program in a defence capability development process.
1873:
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816:, the concept of structure is an essential foundation of nearly every mode of inquiry and discovery in science, philosophy, and art.
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Johannes
Lenhard, GĂĽnter KĂĽppers and Terry Shinn (Eds.) (2006) "Simulation: Pragmatic Constructions of Reality", Springer Berlin.
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2001:
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Fishwick PA. (1995). Simulation Model Design and
Execution: Building Digital Worlds. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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Tom
Ritchey (2012). "Outline for a Morphology of Modelling Methods: Contribution to a General Theory of Modelling". In:
17:
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Tolk, A. (2015). Learning something right from models that are wrong – Epistemology of
Simulation. In Yilmaz, L. (Ed.)
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865:. Assumptions are used in modelling in order to specify the domain of application of the model. For example, the
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Example scientific modelling. A schematic of chemical and transport processes related to atmospheric composition.
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time. A simulation shows how a particular object or phenomenon will behave. Such a simulation can be useful for
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Sokolowski, J.A., Banks, C.M.(2009). Principles of
Modelling and Simulation. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
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796:, analysis, or training in those cases where real-world systems or concepts can be represented by models.
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objects, phenomena, and physical processes, to make a particular part or feature of the world easier to
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1749:: a platform for simulation and analysis of biochemical networks aimed to laboratory scientists".
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2016:
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1313: – Interdisciplinary branch of science concerned with presenting scientific data visually
2639:
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1986:
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von
Neumann, J. (1995), "Method in the physical sciences", in Bródy F., Vámos, T. (editors),
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Modelling and
Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View
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Outline for a Morphology of Modelling Methods: Contribution to a General Theory of Modelling
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948:'s revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering and scientific purposes.
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Representing and Intervening. Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science
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1307: – Process of calculating the causal factors that produced a set of observations
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that will not produce theoretical consequences that are contrary to what is found in
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Eric Winsberg (2003). "Simulated Experiments: Methodology for a Virtual World". In:
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There is also an increasing attention to scientific modelling in fields such as
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2006:
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Extending Ourselves: Computational Science, Empiricism, and Scientific Method
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The Concept and the Role of the Model in Mathematics and Natural and Social
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256:
1732:
Eric Winsberg (2010) "Science in the Age of Computer Simulation" Chicago:
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Refutability, enabling estimation of the degree of confidence in the model
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Ihrig, M. (2012). A New Research Architecture For The Simulation Era. In
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The World as a Process: Simulations in the Natural and Social Sciences
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843:
804:
378:
1681:
Rainer Hegselmann, Ulrich MĂĽller and Klaus Troitzsch (eds.) (1996).
747:
Modelling as a substitute for direct measurement and experimentation
2242:
941:
847:
759:) will always be more reliable than modeled estimates of outcomes.
304:
102:
97:
52:
1283: – Inference seeking the simplest and most likely explanation
873:. This assumption was contextualized and further explained by the
2715:
2227:
1763:
1726:
Eric Winsberg (2018) "Philosophy and Climate Science" Cambridge:
916:
People may attempt to quantify the evaluation of a model using a
775:. In order to execute the model, it needs to be implemented as a
711:
1797:
Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture
1790:
Research in simulation and modelling of various physical systems
1800:
825:
641:
2222:
703:
664:
558:
1721:
Modeling and Simulation. Special Issue of Science in Context
771:
their relations informal form and is often referred to as a
652:
1484:
http://www.ecmwf.int/staff/paco_doblas/abstr/tellus05_1.pdf
846:
of a model might be the modeler's preference for a reduced
2098:
1808:. Acta Morphologica Generalis, Vol 1. No 1. pp. 1–20.
2247:
1712:
William Silvert (2001). "Modelling as a Discipline". In:
838:
comprise more than just a simple renaming of components.
1256:
One application of scientific modelling is the field of
906:
Cost of use, especially in combination with other models
1567:
Concepts and Methodologies in Modelling and Simulation.
1376:, edited by L. Leary (1955), pp. 157-164, and also in
891:
Models of scientific inquiry § Choice of a theory
644:
about all kinds of specialized scientific modelling.
881:works in non-inertial reference frames as well).
2962:
1719:Sergio Sismondo and Snait Gissis (eds.) (1999).
663:objects, phenomena, and physical processes in a
1677:philosophy-of-science literature. A selection:
1401:(Summer 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), (
706:. The aim of these attempts is to construct a
2084:
1827:
1492:
1465:Box, George E.P. & Draper, N.R. (1987).
535:
1593:European Council on Modelling and Simulation
1380:, edited by A. Taub, Volume VI, pp. 491-498.
694:to model reality, in the same way logicians
589:to better understand, operational models to
1621:Defense Acquisition University Press, 2003.
1580:Reliability Engineering & System Safety
1251:
2091:
2077:
1834:
1820:
1417:International Journal of Science Education
1414:
542:
528:
59:
1635:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1624:
27:Scientific activity that produces models
1841:
1544:, New York: Dell Publishing, 1968, p. 61
1262:
473:Library and information science software
31:
1399:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
722:. Other types of scientific models are
14:
2963:
2002:Construction and management simulation
1630:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1501:(1961). "Formal study of models". In:
903:Ability to predict future observations
718:represented. Such computer models are
659:A scientific model seeks to represent
468:Geographic information system software
2072:
1815:
1745:Tomáš Helikar, Jim A Rogers (2009). "
1295: – Visual representation of data
1228:System-level modelling and simulation
884:
832:
2038:List of computer simulation software
976:
912:Simplicity, or even aesthetic appeal
900:Ability to explain past observations
1779:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1769:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1598:
636:. There is a growing collection of
24:
1671:
1372:, p. 628; previously published in
1319: – Type of mathematical model
1293:Data and information visualization
651:
25:
2997:
1806:A Morphology of Modelling Methods
1757:
1611:Systems Engineering Fundamentals.
1378:John von Neumann Collected Works
1203:Stochastic modelling (insurance)
951:
923:
1966:Integrated assessment modelling
1658:
1649:
1585:
1572:
1559:
1547:
1531:
1246:
1519:
1472:
1459:
1408:
1383:
1358:
1345:
1330:
1301: – Problem-solving method
1289: – Aphorism in statistics
13:
1:
2115:Biological data visualization
1709:, Vol 1. No 1. pp. 1–20.
1686:. Theory and Decision Library
1437:10.1080/09500693.2015.1012185
1323:
782:
557:is an activity that produces
1935:Hydrological transport model
1889:Protein structure prediction
1884:Modelling biological systems
1355:. Cambridge University Press
1126:Modelling biological systems
879:general theory of relativity
875:general theory of relativity
867:special theory of relativity
799:
7:
2986:Interpretation (philosophy)
1879:Metabolic network modelling
1734:University of Chicago Press
1707:Acta Morphologica Generalis
1569:Springer–Verlag. pp. 87–106
1339:How the Laws of Physics Lie
1274:
1159:Predictive intake modelling
1116:Metabolic network modelling
871:inertial frame of reference
647:
605:to visualize the subject.
10:
3002:
2155:Mathematical visualization
1992:Business process modelling
1801:Ecotoxicology & Models
1728:Cambridge University Press
1154:Phenomenological modelling
888:
861:Building a model requires
819:
2833:
2703:
2567:
2521:
2445:
2344:
2313:
2306:
2213:
2150:Information visualization
2135:Educational visualization
2107:
2025:
1979:
1953:
1897:
1864:Chemical process modeling
1849:
1342:. Oxford University Press
1336:Cartwright, Nancy. 1983.
1131:Modelling in epidemiology
741:
495:Qualitative data analysis
2326:Charles-René de Fourcroy
2175:Scientific visualization
2102:of technical information
1910:Chemical transport model
1874:Infectious disease model
1714:Int. J. General Systems.
1553:Griffiths, E. C. (2010)
1311:Scientific visualization
1258:modelling and simulation
1252:Modelling and simulation
1140:Multicomputational model
971:
962:engineering optimization
850:, preferences regarding
726:(living models, such as
2981:Epistemology of science
1697:Oxford University Press
1691:Paul Humphreys (2004).
1397:, "Models in Science",
1233:Water quality modelling
764:modeling and simulation
734:(in glassware, such as
634:knowledge visualization
2746:Christopher R. Johnson
2298:Technical illustration
2185:Software visualization
1631:Pullan, Wendy (2000).
1374:The Unity of Knowledge
1366:The Neumann Compendium
1268:
1107:Mathematical modelling
656:
640:, techniques and meta-
618:
374:Inferential statistics
320:Descriptive statistics
267:Human subject research
37:
2640:Lawrence J. Rosenblum
2453:Edward Walter Maunder
2377:Charles Joseph Minard
2195:User interface design
2170:Product visualization
2043:Mathematical modeling
1987:Biopsychosocial model
1740:Philosophy of Science
1509:. Springer. pp. 8–9 (
1266:
1097:Informative modelling
993:Catastrophe modelling
812:of the properties of
753:controlled conditions
655:
626:philosophy of science
614:
158:Philosophical schools
35:
2976:Conceptual modelling
2971:Scientific modelling
2920:Scientific modelling
2895:Information graphics
2635:Clifford A. Pickover
2585:William S. Cleveland
2493:Henry Norris Russell
2478:Howard G. Funkhouser
2422:Florence Nightingale
2387:Francis Amasa Walker
2283:Statistical graphics
2205:Volume visualization
2180:Social visualization
1997:Catastrophe modeling
1843:Scientific modelling
1716:Vol. 30(3), pp. 261.
1688:. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
1542:The Systems Approach
1525:Ritchey, T. (2012)
1351:Hacking, Ian. 1983.
1287:All models are wrong
1164:Predictive modelling
1144:Multiscale modelling
1121:Microscale modelling
1102:Macroscale modelling
1092:Hydrologic modelling
1057:Enterprise modelling
1013:Continuous modelling
983:Analogical modelling
938:Egyptian hieroglyphs
856:deterministic models
671:way. All models are
599:computational models
555:Scientific modelling
483:Reference management
433:Scientific modelling
175:Critical rationalism
2900:Information science
2863:in computer science
2655:Sheelagh Carpendale
2590:George G. Robertson
2427:Karl Wilhelm Pohlke
2362:André-Michel Guerry
2238:Graph of a function
2233:Engineering drawing
1940:Modular Ocean Model
1429:2015IJSEd..37..993N
1281:Abductive reasoning
1213:System architecture
1136:Molecular modelling
1052:Empirical modelling
1008:Computational model
810:scientific analysis
777:computer simulation
595:mathematical models
463:Argument technology
18:Scientific modeling
2940:Volume cartography
2704:Early 21st century
2600:Catherine Plaisant
2595:Bruce H. McCormick
2549:Mary Eleanor Spear
2539:Arthur H. Robinson
2473:Arthur Lyon Bowley
2446:Early 20th century
2293:Technical drawings
2165:Molecular graphics
2140:Flow visualization
2130:Data visualization
2033:Data visualization
2017:Input–output model
1930:Hydrological model
1920:Geologic modelling
1617:2007-09-27 at the
1269:
1183:Software modelling
1077:Homology modelling
1067:Geologic modelling
1028:Document modelling
1023:Discrete modelling
988:Assembly modelling
885:Evaluating a model
852:statistical models
833:Generating a model
688:empirical sciences
657:
457:Tools and software
401:Secondary research
325:Discourse analysis
38:
2958:
2957:
2935:Visual perception
2885:Graphic organizer
2858:Computer graphics
2829:
2828:
2811:Martin Wattenberg
2786:Hanspeter Pfister
2741:Martin Krzywinski
2665:Jock D. Mackinlay
2645:Thomas A. DeFanti
2568:Late 20th century
2488:Ejnar Hertzsprung
2190:Technical drawing
2066:
2065:
1945:Wildfire modeling
1925:Groundwater model
1905:Atmospheric model
1775:Models in Science
1538:C. West Churchman
1395:Hartmann, Stephan
1317:Statistical model
1243:
1242:
1223:Systems modelling
1198:Statistical model
1033:Econometric model
946:Leonardo da Vinci
757:Scientific method
622:science education
601:to simulate, and
587:conceptual models
552:
551:
518:Philosophy portal
426:Systematic review
411:Literature review
369:Historical method
352:Social experiment
287:Scientific method
272:Narrative inquiry
123:Interdisciplinary
117:Research strategy
16:(Redirected from
2993:
2945:Volume rendering
2930:Visual analytics
2925:Spatial analysis
2905:Misleading graph
2756:David McCandless
2731:Gordon Kindlmann
2695:Alfred Inselberg
2690:Leland Wilkinson
2625:Michael Friendly
2559:Howard T. Fisher
2522:Mid 20th century
2463:W. E. B. Du Bois
2367:William Playfair
2357:Adolphe Quetelet
2331:Joseph Priestley
2314:Pre-19th century
2311:
2310:
2278:Skeletal formula
2145:Geovisualization
2120:Chemical imaging
2093:
2086:
2079:
2070:
2069:
2058:Visual analytics
2053:Systems thinking
1971:Population model
1836:
1829:
1822:
1813:
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1653:
1647:
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1628:
1622:
1607:
1596:
1589:
1583:
1576:
1570:
1563:
1557:
1555:What is a model?
1551:
1545:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1507:Hans Freudenthal
1496:
1490:
1476:
1470:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1412:
1406:
1387:
1381:
1370:World Scientific
1362:
1356:
1349:
1343:
1334:
998:Choice modelling
977:
918:utility function
773:conceptual model
610:John von Neumann
603:graphical models
544:
537:
530:
490:Science software
389:Cultural mapping
357:Quasi-experiment
347:Field experiment
315:Content analysis
210:Critical realism
128:Multimethodology
63:
40:
39:
21:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2961:
2960:
2959:
2954:
2950:Information art
2890:Imaging science
2835:
2825:
2806:Fernanda Viégas
2801:Moritz Stefaner
2726:Jessica Hullman
2699:
2670:Alan MacEachren
2620:Ben Shneiderman
2563:
2517:
2441:
2340:
2302:
2215:
2209:
2160:Medical imaging
2103:
2097:
2067:
2062:
2021:
1975:
1961:Energy modeling
1949:
1893:
1869:Ecosystem model
1845:
1840:
1777:. Entry in the
1766:. Entry in the
1760:
1674:
1672:Further reading
1669:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1629:
1625:
1619:Wayback Machine
1608:
1599:
1590:
1586:
1577:
1573:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1548:
1536:
1532:
1524:
1520:
1497:
1493:
1477:
1473:
1464:
1460:
1423:(7): 993–1023.
1413:
1409:
1388:
1384:
1363:
1359:
1350:
1346:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1305:Inverse problem
1277:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1218:System dynamics
1208:Surrogate model
1188:Solid modelling
1169:Scale modelling
1062:Futures studies
1043:Ecosystem model
974:
966:surrogate model
954:
926:
893:
887:
835:
822:
814:magnetic fields
802:
785:
749:
744:
728:laboratory rats
650:
548:
512:
511:
458:
450:
449:
396:Phenomenography
335:Autoethnography
300:
292:
291:
252:Grounded theory
247:Critical theory
242:Art methodology
237:Action research
232:
222:
221:
160:
150:
149:
118:
110:
109:
73:
71:Research design
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2999:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2956:
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2952:
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2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2915:Patent drawing
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2880:Graphic design
2877:
2872:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2839:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2821:Hadley Wickham
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2776:Tamara Munzner
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2675:David Goodsell
2672:
2667:
2662:
2660:Cynthia Brewer
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2561:
2556:
2554:Edgar Anderson
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2529:Jacques Bertin
2525:
2523:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2483:John B. Peddle
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2449:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2437:Francis Galton
2434:
2432:Toussaint Loua
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2412:Georg von Mayr
2409:
2404:
2402:Matthew Sankey
2399:
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2379:
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2369:
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2308:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2268:Sankey diagram
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2219:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2200:Visual culture
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2111:
2109:
2105:
2104:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2081:
2073:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2048:Systems theory
2045:
2040:
2035:
2029:
2027:
2026:Related topics
2023:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2014:
2012:Economic model
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1957:
1955:
1954:Sustainability
1951:
1950:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1859:Cellular model
1855:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1839:
1838:
1831:
1824:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1803:
1798:
1792:
1787:
1781:
1772:
1759:
1758:External links
1756:
1755:
1754:
1751:BioMed Central
1743:
1736:
1730:
1724:
1717:
1710:
1703:
1700:
1689:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1666:
1657:
1648:
1641:
1623:
1597:
1595:. pp. 715–20).
1584:
1582:75(3): 333–57.
1571:
1558:
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1530:
1518:
1491:
1471:
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1407:
1382:
1357:
1344:
1328:
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1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1038:Economic model
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1018:Data modelling
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
975:
973:
970:
953:
950:
934:cave paintings
925:
922:
914:
913:
910:
907:
904:
901:
886:
883:
834:
831:
821:
818:
801:
798:
784:
781:
748:
745:
743:
740:
736:tissue culture
692:interpretation
649:
646:
630:systems theory
591:operationalize
550:
549:
547:
546:
539:
532:
524:
521:
520:
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421:Scoping review
418:
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381:
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371:
366:
364:Field research
361:
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307:
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262:Historiography
259:
254:
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239:
233:
228:
227:
224:
223:
220:
219:
218:
217:
215:Subtle realism
212:
202:
197:
195:Postpositivism
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
170:Constructivism
167:
165:Antipositivism
161:
156:
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148:
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26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2998:
2987:
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2979:
2977:
2974:
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2969:
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2966:
2951:
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2941:
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2936:
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2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2875:Graph drawing
2873:
2871:
2868:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
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2844:
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2832:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2796:Claudio Silva
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2761:Mauro Martino
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
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2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2685:Michael Maltz
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2650:George Furnas
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2630:Howard Wainer
2628:
2626:
2623:
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2618:
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2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
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2573:
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2560:
2557:
2555:
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2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2534:Rudolf Modley
2532:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2498:Max O. Lorenz
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
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2479:
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2469:
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2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2407:Charles Booth
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2382:Luigi Perozzo
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2372:August Kekulé
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2352:Charles Dupin
2350:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2336:Gaspard Monge
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2321:Edmond Halley
2319:
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2309:
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2299:
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2239:
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2206:
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2201:
2198:
2196:
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2188:
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2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2125:Crime mapping
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2100:Visualization
2094:
2089:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2075:
2074:
2071:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
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2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2007:Crime mapping
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
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1958:
1956:
1952:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1915:Climate model
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1898:Environmental
1896:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
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1872:
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1867:
1865:
1862:
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1807:
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1698:
1694:
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1685:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1661:
1652:
1644:
1642:0-521-78258-9
1638:
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1627:
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1606:
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1594:
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1562:
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1539:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1478:Hagedorn, R.
1475:
1468:
1462:
1454:
1450:
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1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
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1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1193:Space mapping
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1149:NLP modelling
1147:
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1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
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1124:
1122:
1119:
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1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1072:Goal modeling
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1049:
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1044:
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1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
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1004:
1003:Climate model
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
980:
979:
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969:
967:
963:
958:
957:Space mapping
952:Space mapping
949:
947:
943:
939:
935:
930:
929:Visualization
924:Visualization
921:
919:
911:
908:
905:
902:
899:
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876:
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868:
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769:
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758:
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739:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
715:
713:
709:
708:formal system
705:
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689:
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654:
645:
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639:
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631:
627:
623:
617:
613:
611:
606:
604:
600:
597:to quantify,
596:
592:
588:
584:
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568:
564:
561:representing
560:
556:
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531:
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522:
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516:
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479:
478:Bibliometrics
476:
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454:
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446:
443:
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436:
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416:Meta-analysis
414:
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409:
407:
406:Bibliometrics
404:
403:
402:
399:
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2853:Color coding
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2771:Miriah Meyer
2736:Aaron Koblin
2721:Jeffrey Heer
2615:Edward Tufte
2610:Pat Hanrahan
2580:Nigel Holmes
2458:Otto Neurath
2397:Oliver Byrne
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257:Hermeneutics
145:Quantitative
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2843:Cartography
2781:Ade Olufeko
2751:Manuel Lima
2680:Kwan-Liu Ma
2605:Stuart Card
2575:Borden Dent
2513:Erwin Raisz
2468:Henry Gantt
1499:Leo Apostel
1087:Hydrography
869:assumes an
863:abstraction
330:Ethnography
230:Methodology
185:Fallibilism
133:Qualitative
103:Referencing
2965:Categories
2766:John Maeda
2544:John Tukey
2508:Harry Beck
2503:Fritz Kahn
2253:Photograph
1851:Biological
1747:ChemChains
1695:. Oxford:
1489:57A:219–33
1389:Frigg and
1324:References
1174:Simulation
889:See also:
789:simulation
783:Simulation
700:principles
696:axiomatize
684:principles
567:understand
505:Statistics
500:Simulation
438:Simulation
379:Interviews
342:Experiment
310:Case study
282:Pragmatism
200:Pragmatism
190:Positivism
180:Empiricism
2848:Chartjunk
2816:Bang Wong
2711:Polo Chau
2417:John Snow
2392:John Venn
2273:Schematic
2258:Pictogram
1795:Modelling
1633:Structure
1453:143865553
1445:0950-0693
1299:Heuristic
844:structure
805:Structure
800:Structure
720:in silico
680:formalize
669:objective
661:empirical
579:visualize
563:empirical
138:Art-based
2834:Related
2243:Ideogram
1615:Archived
1469:. p. 424
1391:Hartmann
1275:See also
942:geometry
940:, Greek
848:ontology
732:in vitro
648:Overview
583:simulate
575:quantify
305:Analysis
98:Argument
88:Question
83:Proposal
53:Research
45:a series
43:Part of
2716:Ben Fry
2228:Diagram
1482:(2005)
1425:Bibcode
854:versus
820:Systems
794:testing
762:Within
724:in vivo
712:reality
690:use an
686:of the
665:logical
638:methods
384:Mapping
299:Methods
205:Realism
93:Writing
2836:topics
2307:People
2214:Image
2108:Fields
1980:Social
1764:Models
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1487:Tellus
1480:et al.
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944:, and
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642:theory
632:, and
571:define
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445:Survey
78:Ethics
2288:Table
2223:Chart
2216:types
1467:Wiley
1449:S2CID
972:Types
768:model
755:(see
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581:, or
2263:Plot
1637:ISBN
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