291:
307:
246:
678:), who had been ordered to "fill the city with corpses before you sheathe your swords," massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. Although General Liu proclaimed that only adult men were to be executed, Liu's soldiers indiscriminately incinerated women and children in their houses. Of the initial population estimated to be about 100,000, there were only 53 reported survivors following the Jiayin massacre.
471:
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clothing, how would we be able to stand with a quiver of arrows on the right side and a bow on the left? How could we take in hand the advance of a brave peregrine falcon ? If we give up archery and horsemanship, then we can certainly wear wide-sleeved clothing. But then how are we any different from those depraved people who eat meat cut by others
638:
It also led to resentment amongst the Han
Chinese and also out of loyalty for the Ming dynasty, some areas in China fought back against the Manchu which provoked the Qing dynasty to massacre entire populations. There was accounts of such massacres perpetuated by Qing soldiers at southern cities, such
458:
stated that "there were girls who emulated Han
Chinese clothing and jewelry. This is truly not the Manchu custom" when he inspected the marriage draft. The dress code continued to be infringed as recorded in 1775 (when bondservant daughters were observed wearing one earring instead of 3 in one ear),
401:
princes and Manchu officials (in 1635 and in 1637) that the conquests by the Manchu were through riding and archery, and thus the wide and brood-sleeved clothing of the Ming dynasty were entirely unsuitable to the Manchu lifestyle and worried that his descendant would adopt Han
Chinese customs while
429:
Along with the adoption of the queue, the abandonment of traditional Hanfu through the adoption of Manchu clothing was also perceived as a symbol of submission by the Manchu. However, the early Qing court did not allow Han
Chinese men to wear all forms of Manchu items as they prohibited Chinese men
372:
n" allowing physical mobility. Manchu coats were close fitting and had slashed openings on the four sides which allowed greater ease of movements when horse-riding; the sleeves were long and tight ending in horse-hoof shape which were designed to protects the hands from the wind; trousers were worn
634:
The
Tifayifu policy lead to outrage and resistance, especially in central and south China, when the unpopular policy united educated men and peasants together in resistance. In 1645, during military campaigns in south China, Manchu troops were ordered to kill any Chinese who refused to shave his
613:
era for urging the clothing to be changed to what is presumed to Ming-style fashion; however, during this period, only the scholar-official elite were required to wear Manchu style and not the entire male population, so the great majority of men were allowed to dressed in Ming-style fashion. Han
406:
Previously, the wise men . . . would often advise me to abandon our Manchu clothing and hats for
Chinese clothing and hats, and to adopt the Chinese way. I refused. They would not accept my reasons. Now, here, I want to give myself as an example. If those of us gathered here wore wide-sleeved
129:
period, a large number of ordinary people still followed the clothing and hairstyle of the Ming dynasty, except for the officials and military generals, who had to wear the Manchu queue and uniforms. With time, Han
Chinese men eventually adopted Manchu-style clothing, such as
450:
and in 1662 and 1664 for both Han
Chinese and Manchu; the ban on foot-binding for Han Chinese was eventually abandoned). Manchu women were also forbidden wearing a single earring (a Han Chinese custom) and had to wear three earrings in one ear instead (Manchu custom).
359:
Manchu and Han
Chinese clothing (Hanfu, including those worn in the Ming dynasty) differed from each other, the broad and general description of such differences in how Ming dynasty clothing is typically associated with sedentary characteristics such as being loose,
277:, ruled by the Han Chinese, and was subsequently adopted in the Qing dynasty as Manchu clothing items. Manchu robes were initially collarless. The Manchu also adopted the right closure from the Han Chinese as they initially closed their robes on the left side.
1504:. Frederic E. Wakeman, Carolyn Grant, Berkeley. Center for Chinese Studies University of California, American Council of Learned Societies. Committee on Studies of Chinese Civilization. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1975. pp. 82โ83.
1048:
Dorgon did not want to see anything go wrong in a province and this might be the main reason why the government ... When the
Chinese were ordered to wear the queue , Sun and Li took the initiative in changing their Ming hairstyle to
657:, a Han Chinese general who had served the Ming but defected to the Qing, ordered troops to carry out three separate massacres in the city of Jiading within a month, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths. The three massacres at
459:
in 1804 (when 19 girls came up with bound feet), in 1839 (when an imperial edict was decreed punishing fathers of young girls who presented themselves for imperial inspection wearing Chinese-style upper garment with wide sleeves).
373:
by both Manchu men and women, and their boots had rigid soles which facilitated mounted archery. For the Han Chinese, however, Manchu-style clothing conflicted with their Confucian prescriptions which govern their attire.
338:
and continued to develop in the Qing dynasty. Right: Lady Aisin-Gioro Hengxiang, the birth mother of Wanrong, wearing the traditional Manchu one-piece robe, a chenyi, that later inspired the cheongsam.
668:. The city of Jiangyin held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days; when the city wall was finally breached on October 9, 1645, the Qing army, led by the Han Chinese Ming defector, General
175:". Moreover, the traditional hairstyle of the Han Chinese were a fundamental aspect of their cultural identity and shaving their head was one of the greatest insults and was also a form punishment (
82:, the Manchu rulers ordered the surrendering Han Chinese population to shave their heads; however, this policy was halted just a month later due to intense resistance from the Han Chinese near
273:, the Han Chinese being the dominant ethnicity, and the styles of various ethnic groups. Some examples include the standing collar of the cheongsam, which has been found in relics from the
193:). The Qing rulers however perceived the queue as a visible of symbol of submission, refusing to withdraw or modify the regulation. The Manchu, Mongol bannermen and Han bannermen in
159:. It differed from the way Han Chinese styled their hair; the Han Chinese kept long hair with all their hair grown over their head and was coiled into a topknot, held into place by
438:
The early Qing court also forbid Manchu women from dressing themselves in Han Chinese women's fashion, which included the wearing of Ming-style clothing with wide sleeves and from
1577:
Social Life of the Chinese: With Some Account of Their Religious, Governmental, Educational, and Business Customs and Opinions. With Special But Not Exclusive Reference to Fuhchau
494:
In order to stabilize its rule and integrate the cultural system of the Han Chinese, the Qing dynasty court adopted a mitigation policy, which consisted of 10 exemptions to the
402:
forgetting the sources of their greatness; therefore, the Manchu strongly rejected the adoption of Ming dynasty court clothing. It is recorded that Hong Taiji said in 1636:
1036:. Faculty of Asian Studies monographs // The Australian National University (illustrated ed.). Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. p. 37.
681:
Han Chinese soldiers in 1645 under Han General Hong Chengchou forced the queue on the people of Jiangnan while Han people were initially paid silver to wear the queue in
173:
Our bodies - to every hair and bit of skin - are received by us from our parents, and we must not presume to injure or wound them. This is the beginning of filial piety
520:), a Han Chinese official of the Ming dynasty who surrendered to Qing dynasty, wherein the specifics of those exemptions were made with ten pairs of lines:
574:
policy were: Han Chinese women, Han Chinese children, Buddhist and, Taoist monks, deceased Han Chinese men, and performers in Chinese theatres, While the
462:
Therefore, although Manchu clothing was prevalent and Hanfu was forbidden in daily life, Hanfu-style clothing did not cease existing in society.
1314:
1128:
937:
669:
654:
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The official ceremonies must follow the system of the Qing dynasty, while the marriage ceremonies should keep the tradition of the Han people;
114:, Sun Zhixie and Li Ruolin, voluntarily shaved their foreheads and demanded that Dorgon impose the queue hairstyle on the entire population.
102:, the Qing rulers demanded that men among their newly defeated subjects adopt the Manchu hairstyle or face execution. The Qing prince regent
165:"system of rites and music" of ancient China and violated the Confucian beliefs of not harming the body which was bestowed by one's parents
106:
initially canceled the order to shave for all men in Ming territories south of the Great Wall (post-1644 additions to the Qing). The full
546:
Prostitutes wore the clothes required by the Qing court, while actors were free to wear ancient clothes to play the role of the ancients;
290:
397:(all non-Han Chinese regimes) with the adoption of Hanfu and the adoption of a sedentary lifestyle. Hong Taijji therefore reminded the
528:
Men had to shave and braid their hair, and wear Manchu clothes, while women still wore the original hairstyle and Han-style clothes;
534:
Affairs of the overworld must be handled by means of Manchus, but the affairs of the underworld are still handled traditionally;
1470:
1435:
1400:
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979:
913:
1548:
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155:(bianzi) was traditionally a Manchurian hairstyle, which was itself a variant of northern tribes' hairstyle, including the
597:
Voicing disapproval to the queue order and urging to the return of Chinese fashion (Ming-style) lead to the execution of
474:
Painting depicting the transition from the Ming to the Qing dynasty attire system: in the Qing dynasty, men had to wear
1207:
1180:
1509:
1346:
1197:
512:; 'Ten rules that must be obeyed and ten that need not be obeyed'). This policy was proposed by Jin Zhijun (
163:. Wearing the queue was unpopular among the Chinese and was met with resistance as shaving the head was against the
648:
454:
However, from the middle of the 18th century, the women dress code were being infringed as it is recorded that the
200:
The Qing imposed the shaved head hairstyle on men of all ethnicities under its rule even before 1644 like upon the
204:
in the 1630s who had to shave their foreheads. The men of certain ethnicities who came under Qing rule later like
1597:
1143:
1170:
971:
Manchus & Han : ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861-1928
1555:(27). China Heritage Project, ANU College of Asia & the Pacific (CAP), The Australian National University.
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1014:
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Ordinary people had to wear Manchu clothes and hairstyles, but monks and priests should wear Han-style clothes;
306:
33:
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1379:
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Art Studies: Science, Experience, Education (ICASSEE 2019)
25:
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autonomous chiefdoms in Southwestern China where many minorities lived. There was one Han Chinese Tusi, the
1009:. Vol. 2 of Great Enterprise (illustrated ed.). University of California Press,l. p. 868.
390:
1006:
The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China, Volume 1
1533:
626:โ over time, and by the late Qing, officials, scholars, and many commoners wore Manchu-style clothing.
1612:
531:
During his life, he had to wear Manchu clothes, and after his death, he could wear Han-style clothes;
194:
1607:
1202:. Vol. 37 of Turcologica Series (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 22.
552:
The state title was changed from Ming dynasty to Qing dynasty, but the official title names remain;
1575:
1374:
555:
Taxes and official services should follow the Manchu system, while the language remain in Chinese.
168:
117:
The law was strongly opposed by the Han Chinese, especially those who were part of the late-Ming
1338:
Redefining history : ghosts, spirits, and human society in Pสปu Sung-ling's world, 1640-1715
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1602:
780:"The Idealised Lives of Women: Visions of Beauty in Chinese Popular Prints of the Qing Dynasty"
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When a child is young, he need not obey, but when grown up, he must follow the rules of Manchu;
269:
Throughout China's multicultural history, clothing has been shaped through an intermingling of
160:
79:
537:
The official must wear the Qing official uniform, but the slaves still wore the Ming clothing;
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drew up the dressing code after 1636, he made a direct association between the decline of the
138:, and by the late Qing, officials, scholars, and many commoners wore Manchu-style clothing.
125:
edict, there was still resistance to haircutting and adopting Manchu-style clothing. In the
8:
75:
664:
In June 1645, news that men were required to adopt Manchu hairstyle reached the city of
570:
policy mainly applied to adult men, and the people who were generally exempted from the
263:
Differences between the Chinese changshan (left) and Manchu neitao (right), Qing dynasty
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605:; Chen Mingxia suggested that the Qing dynasty court should adopt Ming-style clothing "
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838:"Absent Presence: Costuming and Identity in the Qing Drama A Ten-Thousand Li Reunion"
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worn by Han women around the 19th to 20th centuries. Below their upper garment, this
152:
63:
1386:
1148:(illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 217.
849:
791:
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head. The Tifayifu policy led to great bloodshed and resentment among the Chinese.
622:
610:
455:
418:
176:
135:
118:
726:"Contesting the past on the Chinese Internet: Han-centrism and mnemonic practices"
647:, where tens of thousands of people were deliberately and brutally killed. It was
602:
559:
Su Wenhao, Study on the Inheritance and Cultural Creation of Manchu Qipao Culture
447:
46:'shaving hair and changing costume') was a cultural policy of the early
1391:
1175:. Vol. 15 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter. p. 21.
1062:"Xiao Jing : The Scope and Meaning of the Treatise - Chinese Text Project"
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continued to be used in subordinate spaces (in theatre and women's quarters).
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70:. The edict specifically applied to living adult men, who did not fall in the
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A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990
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from wearing certain specific Manchu items, such as clothing made of fur.
1430:. David Faure. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. p. 164.
1336:
1245:
59:
1499:
1375:"Study on the Inheritance and Cultural Creation of Manchu Qipao Culture"
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already shaved all their heads bald so the shaving order was redundant.
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The last emperors : a social history of Qing imperial institutions
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412:
Macabe Keliher, The Board of Rites and the Making of Qing China, p. 157
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boots, trousers and functional riding coats of coat of nomadic horseme
344:
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who carried out massacres against people refusing to wear the queue.
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when urging his descendants to maintain the wearing of Manchu dress.
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131:
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policy resumed and enforced severely. Within one year after entering
1341:. Shelley Hsueh-lun Chang. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
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Executions and progressive adoption of Manchu-style clothing by men
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was used in dominant spaces (e.g. ritual and official locations),
364:" with wide and long-sleeves which restricted movement and with "
87:
83:
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Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1
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Chinese men eventually adopted Manchu-style clothing โ such as
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103:
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Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research
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482:
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Emperor and ancestor : state and lineage in South China
601:(a former Ming dynasty official) for treason in 1654 by the
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74:. In 1644, on the first day when the Manchu penetrated the
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Materials for the Study of Tungusic Languages and Folklore
609:". It also lead to the execution of Liu Zhenyu during the
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Manchu clothing were associated with martial vigour. When
1549:"The End of the Queue: Hair as Symbol in Chinese History"
327:
1033:
Two Rulers in One Reign: Dorgon and Shun-chih, 1644-1660
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edict was only implemented after two Han officials from
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Staging personhood : costuming in early Qing drama
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territories since 1616 already shaved their foreheads.
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Chenyi, a one-piece Manchu women's robe, Qing dynasty.
499:
215:
However, the shaving policy was not enforced in the
1385:. Vol. 368. Atlantis Press. pp. 208โ211.
345:
Differences between Manchu and Han Chinese clothing
283:Han Chinese women's attire and Manchu women's robe
1465:(3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 138.
587:
121:. Even ten years after the implementation of the
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1573:
1096:The Qing Dynasty and traditional Chinese culture
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1282:The Board of Rites and the making of Qing China
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513:
1250:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1501:Conflict and control in late Imperial China
974:. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
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41:
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1547:Godley, Michael R. (September 2011).
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842:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
417:Hong Taiji was again cited by the
368:" while the Manchu clothing were "
16:Qing clothing and hairstyle policy
14:
1624:
1169:Majewicz, Alfred F., ed. (2011).
1079:
944:
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818:
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480:while women were allowed to wear
446:for the Manchu women, in 1645 by
90:, the southern capital, from the
86:. Only after the Manchu captured
1244:Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1998).
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661:are some of the most infamous.
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588:Consequences of tifayifu edict
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50:as it conquered the preceding
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1030:Lui, Adam Yuen-chung (1989).
1003:Wakeman, Frederic E. (1985).
968:Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000).
778:Wang, Anita Xiaoming (2018).
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1459:Roberts, John A. G. (2011).
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1196:Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007).
1093:Smith, Richard J. (2015).
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119:scholar and literati class
1580:. Harpers. pp. 242โ.
1574:Justus Doolittle (1876).
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1553:China Heritage Quarterly
1335:Chang, Chun-shu (1998).
1279:Keliher, Macabe (2020).
742:10.1177/1750698019875996
630:Resistance and massacres
1285:. Oakland, California.
1142:Forsyth, James (1994).
796:10.3406/arasi.2018.1993
724:Wang, Yi (2019-09-19).
1598:Legal history of China
1532:: CS1 maint: others (
1099:. Lanham. p. 62.
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80:Battle of Shanhai Pass
1424:Faure, David (2007).
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836:Wang, Guojun (2019).
649:Han Chinese defectors
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362:"ample, flowing robes
195:Later Jin (1616โ1636)
142:Cultural significance
72:stipulated exceptions
498:policy known as the
425:Symbol of submission
296:Han Chinese's women
167:as indicated in the
1373:Su, Wenhao (2019).
466:Tifayifu exemptions
434:Women's fashion ban
318:Left: A Qing-style
271:Han clothing styles
76:Great Wall of China
34:traditional Chinese
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221:Chiefdom of Kokang
60:Han Chinese people
26:simplified Chinese
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322:, a form of
275:Ming dynasty
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202:Nanai people
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100:China proper
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1592:Categories
1301:1090283580
1155:0521477719
1072:2022-03-08
1043:0731506545
1016:0520048040
924:1129398697
711:References
444:Hong Taiji
383:Hong Taiji
1561:1833-8461
1528:cite book
1481:930059261
1446:290565472
1411:213865603
1309:cite book
1123:cite book
1115:898910891
1066:ctext.org
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332:mamianqun
147:Hairstyle
132:changshan
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1266:43476703
812:26585538
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666:Jiangyin
645:Jiangyin
611:Qianlong
577:qizhuang
572:tifayifu
568:tifayifu
557:โ
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477:Qizhuang
410:โ
355:Qizhuang
231:Clothing
169:Xiaojing
123:Tifayifu
112:Shandong
108:Tifayifu
96:Tifayifu
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623:magua
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506:ๅไปๅไธไป
483:Hanfu
351:Hanfu
324:Hanfu
320:aoqun
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1557:ISSN
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920:OCLC
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