936:", meaning that according to the Qing, both Han and non-Han peoples were part of China (Zhongguo). Similarly, the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, while the term "people of China" (中國之人 Zhongguo zhi ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchus, Mongol, and other subjects of the Qing. The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han peoples like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols, Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han people, into "one family" united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (中外一家) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples. The Qianlong Emperor rejected earlier ideas that only Han people could be subjects of China and only Han lands could be considered as part of China, saying in 1755 that "There exists a view of China (Zhongxia), according to which non-Han people cannot become China's subjects and their land cannot be integrated into the territory of China. This does not represent our dynasty's understanding of China, but is instead that of the earlier
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settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into
Manchuria and Inner Mongolia so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s. Qianlong allowed Han Chinese peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite him issuing edicts in favor of banning them from 1740 to 1776. Chinese tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area. Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, the path linking
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over the Great Wall and Willow
Palisade, during the eighteenth century Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares of privately owned land in Manchuria and 203,583 hectares of lands which were part of courtiers' and nobles' estates, and Banner lands, in garrisons and towns in Manchuria Han Chinese made up 80% of the population.
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Han
Chinese were officially forbidden to settle in Inner and Outer Mongolia. Mongols were forbidden from crossing into the Han Chinese 18 provinces (neidi) without permission and were given punishments if they did. Mongols were forbidden from crossing into another Mongol leagues. Han Chinese settlers
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In the mid 19th century, arriving with an Amban, a community of
Chinese troops from Sichuan who married Tibetan women settled down in the Lubu neighborhood of Lhasa, where their descendants established a community and assimilated into Tibetan culture. Hebalin was the location of where Chinese Muslim
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had to submit to the
Manchus, and most of what is now Inner Mongolia was incorporated to the Qing. The three khans of Khalkha in Outer Mongolia had established close ties with the Qing dynasty since the reign of Hong Taiji, but had remained effectively self-governing. While Qing rulers had attempted
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Ordinary
Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners and from crossing into neidi (the Han Chinese 18 provinces) and were given serious punishments if they did in order to
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Despite officially prohibiting Han
Chinese settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in
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was able to turn his attentions to this problem and tried diplomatic negotiations. But Galdan ended up with attacking the
Khalkha lands, and Kangxi's responded by personally leading Eight Banner contingents with heavy guns into the field against Galdan's forces, eventually defeating the latter. In
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However Qing rule saw an massively increasing amount of Han
Chinese both illegally and legally streaming into Manchuria and settling down to cultivate land as Manchu landlords desired Han Chinese peasants to rent on their land and grow grain, most Han Chinese migrants were not evicted as they went
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Han
Chinese farmers were resettled from north China by the Qing to the area along the Liao River in order to restore the land to cultivation. Wasteland was reclaimed by Han Chinese squatters in addition to other Han who rented land from Manchu landlords. Despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese
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The Qing implemented two different policies for Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin. Han Chinese were encouraged by the Qing to permanently settle and colonize Dzungaria while permanent Han settlers were banned from the Tarim with only Han merchants and Han Green Standard Army soldiers stationed in
558:. According to Evelyn S. Rawski both Green Standard Army and Bannermen made up the Qing garrison in Tibet. According to Sabine Dabringhaus, Green Standard Chinese soldiers numbering more than 1,300 were stationed by the Qing in Tibet to support the 3,000 strong Tibetan army.
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in the early 17th century. As a vassal of the Ming emperors who officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial power of the Ming dynasty, Nurhaci embarked on an intertribal feud in 1582 that escalated into a campaign to
235:" and openly renounced the sovereignty of Ming overlordship in order to complete the unification of those Jurchen tribes still allied with the Ming emperor. After a series of successful battles against both the Ming and various tribes in the area that became
920:. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing state (including Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and other areas under Qing control) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state. After the Qing conquered
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were sent to suppress the revolt. Eventually the rebellion was brutally suppressed, which marked the onset of direct Qing rule in Qinghai. Lubsan Danzan fled to the Dzungar Khanate and was later captured by the Manchus in 1755 during the
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in 1691, at which the Khalkha khans formally declared allegiance to him. The war against Galdan essentially brought the Khalkhas to the empire, and the three khans of the Khalkha were formally inducted into the inner circles of the Qing
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and captured the Dzungar khan. After Amursana's request to be declared Dzungar khan went unanswered, he led a revolt against the Qing. Over the next two years, Qing armies destroyed the remnants of the Dzungar khanate. The native
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dynasties." The term "Zhongguo" or "China" was also used extensively to refer to the Qing in foreign communications and treaties with other states. It appeared in a formal Qing government document for the first time in the 1689
324:'s reign, and Han Chinese were the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800. To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing sold formerly Manchu only lands along the Sungari to Han Chinese at the beginning of the
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During the course of the 17th and 18th centuries, most regions inhabited by ethnic Mongols, notably Outer and Inner Mongolia became part of the Qing Empire. Even before the dynasty began to take control of
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state. The Manchus conquered a Mongol tribe in the process of war against the Ming. Nurhaci's early relations with the Mongols tribes was mainly an alliance. With Ligden's defeat and death his son
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961:. Nevertheless, the Qing implemented different ways of legitimization for different peoples within the Qing Empire. For example, Qing emperors were referred to as "Khagan of China" (or "
505:(also spelled Gangchenney), the governor of Western Tibet, expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720 as patrons of the Khoshut and liberators of Tibet from the Dzungars. This began the
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troops and Manchu Bannermen were both part of the Qing force who fought in Tibet in the war against the Dzungars. It was said that the Sichuan commander Yue Zhongqi (a descendant of
550:) entered Lhasa first when the 2,000 Green Standard soldiers and 1,000 Manchu soldiers of the "Sichuan route" seized Lhasa. According to Mark C. Elliott, after 1728 the Qing used
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619:'s campaigns to Xinjiang. Most of present-day Qinghai was put under the control of the Minister of Xining Handling Affairs (Chinese: 西寧辦事大臣, also known as the Xining
708:, started a revolt against the Qing Empire. However, it was crushed by the Qing forces by 1759, which marked the beginning of whole Xinjiang under Qing rule. The
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Han Chinese were banned from settling in this region but the rule was openly violated and Han Chinese became a majority in urban areas by the early 19th century.
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and Han Chinese were allowed to permanently settle in the Tarim. During the weakening of the Qing dynasty in the mid-19th century, both Chinese Muslims (
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At multiple places such as Lhasa, Batang, Dartsendo, Lhari, Chamdo, and Litang, Green Standard troops were garrisoned throughout the Dzungar war.
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Tumen jalafun jecen akū: Manchu studies in honour of Giovanni Stary By Giovanni Stary, Alessandra Pozzi, Juha Antero Janhunen, Michael Weiers
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in 1689 which gave the land to China. During the mid-19th century, however, Outer Manchuria was eventually lost to the Russians during the
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Yaqub Beg's Turkic forces, allied with a Han Chinese militia, attacked and besieged Chinese Muslim forces in Ürümqi. In 1871, the
744:(Altishahr) in the south under his rule as Xinjiang. The Qing's campaigns in Central Asia led to the latter calling for help from
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settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe. By 1791 there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in the
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Mongols, who nominally acknowledged their allegiance to the Qing dynasty. However, after the Dzungar invasion which ended the
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in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land was now absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial. The
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that the jasak had petitioned the Qing government to legalize the status of the peasants who had already settled there.
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by 1694. Thus, by the end of the 17th century the Qing dynasty had put both Inner and Outer Mongolia under its control.
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tried to gain the land north of the Amur River. This was eventually rebutted by the Qing in the 1680s, resulting in the
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The Qing Empire in 1820. The Inner Asian regions are shown in light yellow (different from the dark yellow area called
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Reardon-Anderson, James (Oct 2000). "Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty".
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troops and their offspring lived, while Lubu was the place where Han Chinese troops and their offspring lived.
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between 1876 and 1878. In 1881, the Qing recovered the Gulja region through diplomatic negotiations, via the
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explicitly commemorated the Qing conquest of the Dzungars as having added new territory in Xinjiang to
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rotating garrisons allowed in the Tarim Basin. The ban was lifted in the 1820s after the invasion of
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based in Central Tibet blocked the rebels' retreat from Qing retaliation. Chinese commanders such as
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328:'s reign, and Han Chinese filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s according to Abbe Huc.
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Marriage and inequality in Chinese society By Rubie Sharon Watson, Patricia Buckley Ebrey, p.177
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soldiers in Tibet. A community descended from Han Chinese soldiers and officials grew in Lhasa.
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740:(Yining). This brought the previously two separate regions, the Dzungaria in the north and the
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From 1640 to 1724, a big part of the area that is now Qinghai was under the control of the
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respectively in 1762 to be ready for a potential war, which eventually did not break out.
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The Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand C1760–1860
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the highest spiritual and political authority in Tibet, establishing the regime known as
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was incorporated into the Qing Empire as a semi-autonomous vassal within Xinjiang. The
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and dropping the old names of Zhunbu (準部, Dzungar region) and Huijiang, "Muslimland."
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led by the ruling prince Lubsan Danzan in Qinghai revolted against the Qing under the
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1251:(4). Forest History Society and American Society for Environmental History: 506.
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invaded Tibet in 1717, deposed the pretender to the position of Dalai Lama of
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Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.
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New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
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The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, Part 1, by John K. Fairbank, p37
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province during the period. This lasted until the end of the Qing dynasty.
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736:(the so-called "Manchu Kuldja", or Yili), 30 km (19 mi) west of
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that began in the 17th century. In 1755, with the help of the Oirat noble
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which conquered nearly all of Xinjiang over the next six years. At the
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Gateway to Lhasa (western gate), pictured here at the time of the 1904
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before the revolt. 200,000 Tibetans and Mongols in Qinghai attacked
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who lived around the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of
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violated the rule and crossed into and settled in Inner Mongolia.
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eventually controlled the whole of Manchuria. However, during the
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728:. The Qing dynasty put the entire Xinjiang under the rule of the
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keep the Mongols divided against each other to benefit the Qing.
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epidemic. After the campaigns against the Dzungars in 1758, two
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in Tibet and the subsequent Qing conquest of Tibet in 1720, the
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1301:. Vol. 10. Cambridge University Press. 1978. p. 356.
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suffered heavily from the brutal campaigns and a simultaneous
513:. The Qing emperors appointed imperial residents known as the
206:, the chieftain of a minor Jurchen tribe – the
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Official map of the Qing Empire published by the Qing in 1905.
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took advantage of the chaotic situation and seized the rich
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Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
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1802:
284:, the Qing government further decreed a prohibition of non-
973:" or "(Manchu) Emperor" by their Mongol subjects, and as "
795:) rebelled in Xinjiang cities, following on-going Chinese
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were also actively making such attempts. After the end of
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The Qing stationed both Manchu Bannermen and Han Chinese
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of the Qing dynasty, together with Tibetan forces under
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Inner and Outer Mongolia within the Qing dynasty in 1820
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to Tibet, who commanded over 2,000 troops stationed in
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who established a center of government at the fort of
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had driven a number of Mongol tribes to ally with the
965:") by their Turkic Muslim subjects (now known as the
908:("中國", lit. "central state", the term for "China" in
202:. What was to become the Manchu state was founded by
331:
144:
broke out. This eventually led to Qing conquests of
50:
in the 17th and the 18th century AD, including both
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Historical territories of the Manchu-led Qing empire
3346:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
1643:Treaty between Tibet and Nepal, 1856 (translation)
1605:"The Qing Dynasty and Its Central Asian Neighbors"
981:") by their Tibetan subjects (such as in the 1856
594:in 1723. Lubsan Danzan also made contact with the
428:During the eighteenth century, growing numbers of
839:. Yaqub Beg's rule lasted until the Qing general
3602:
1242:
554:troops to man the garrison in Lhasa rather than
389:of the rulers of Khalkha and Inner Mongolia in
372:to the west of Khalkha under the leadership of
288:people getting into this area of their origin.
2746:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
3166:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
3137:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
2205:
1737:
1723:
912:), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in
1055:Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty
653:in present-day Xinjiang was the base of the
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1087:. Cambridge University Press. p. 220.
752:. The Qing forces and Afghan forces of the
716:compared his achievements with that of the
2212:
2198:
1730:
1716:
1432:
1085:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China
231:. Two years later, Nurhaci announced the "
2826:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
1620:
1318:
368:to achieve control over this region, the
172:Manchuria within the Qing dynasty in 1820
93:(1687–1758). Even before the conquest of
2675:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
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639:Xinjiang within the Qing dynasty in 1820
634:
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3282:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
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1680:
791:) and Turkic Muslims (now known as the
574:Qinghai within the Qing dynasty in 1820
85:Wars were fought primarily against the
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320:was settled by Han Chinese during the
3580:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
2821:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
2193:
1711:
1687:. Taylor & Francis. p. 124.
1602:
1465:
1116:
1082:
859:Identifying the Qing state with China
448:Tibet within the Qing dynasty in 1820
378:the war against the Three Feudatories
2801:Ministry of Posts and Communications
1660:. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 278.
1653:
1609:Saksaha: A Journal of Manchu Studies
182:The Qing dynasty was founded not by
3549:History of Qing (People's Republic)
2124:The Cambridge History of Inner Asia
1893:Protectorate of the Western Regions
904:The Qing identified their state as
13:
3266:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
2635:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
2628:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
2508:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
2332:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
811:, a warlord from the neighbouring
229:previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty
14:
3652:
3611:History of Qing dynasty by region
3555:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
3396:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
3271:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
2423:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
1622:10.3998/saksaha.13401746.0012.004
849:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
807:provinces further east. In 1865,
507:Qing administrative rule of Tibet
385:the meantime, Kangxi organized a
332:Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia
3366:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
2682:Articles of Favourable Treatment
2438:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
1860:
1083:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2010).
521:and reported to the Lifan Yuan.
280:In 1668 during the reign of the
2413:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
2299:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
1674:
1647:
1636:
1596:
1584:
1572:
1560:
1548:
1536:
1518:
1509:
1493:
1453:
1441:
1420:
1408:
1396:
1384:
1372:
1360:
1348:
1336:
1305:
1291:
1279:
1236:
1227:
1218:
1206:
1194:
1182:
659:long struggle with the Dzungars
130:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
3067:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
2357:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
1504:Britannica Online Encyclopedia
1299:The Cambridge History of China
1170:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1122:
1101:
1076:
1067:
1:
3501:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
3276:Islam during the Qing dynasty
3132:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
2816:Provincial military commander
2806:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
2791:Imperial Household Department
2618:Preparative Constitutionalism
2322:Sino-Russian border conflicts
1500:Yakub Beg (Pamiri adventurer)
1060:
138:Sino-Russian border conflicts
3260:Researches on Manchu Origins
2665:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
2275:Transition from Ming to Qing
2265:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
1315:, New Brunswick 1970, p. 522
843:(also known as General Tso)
163:
99:Transition from Ming to Qing
7:
3160:Changzhou School of Thought
2670:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
2645:Railway Protection Movement
2623:1909 Parliamentary election
2608:British expedition to Tibet
2518:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
2478:Self-Strengthening Movement
2453:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
988:
630:
537:British expedition to Tibet
10:
3657:
3560:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
2448:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
2387:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
2377:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
2347:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
1993:against Northwest khanates
1050:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
1045:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia
1040:Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia
1035:Tang dynasty in Inner Asia
873:Lizheng Gate (麗正門) in the
862:
642:
565:
451:
355:in 1644, the escapades of
343:
247:in the later decades, the
175:
40:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
3570:Names of the Qing dynasty
3513:
3481:
3438:
3431:
3300:
3218:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
3145:
3077:
2998:
2903:
2699:
2590:
2548:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
2543:Gongche Shangshu movement
2488:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
2400:
2337:Chinese Rites controversy
2307:
2237:
2228:
2115:
2054:
2021:
1983:
1950:
1908:
1878:
1869:
1858:
1746:
1313:The Empire of the Steppes
1030:Han dynasty in Inner Asia
865:Names of the Qing dynasty
245:Qing conquest of the Ming
178:Manchuria under Qing rule
42:was the expansion of the
3621:Mongolia under Qing rule
3491:Great Qing Treasure Note
3311:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
3021:Administrative divisions
2838:Administrative divisions
2766:Flag of the Qing dynasty
1786:Western Turkic Khaganate
1781:Eastern Turkic Khaganate
1603:Onuma, Takahiro (2014).
645:Xinjiang under Qing rule
465:overthrew the prince of
439:
346:Mongolia under Qing rule
25:Han Eighteen provinces).
3087:Chengde Mountain Resort
2888:Three Eastern Provinces
2538:First Sino-Japanese War
2513:Northern Chinese Famine
2372:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
2270:Qing invasion of Joseon
1791:Second Turkic Khaganate
1530:April 20, 2016, at the
875:Chengde Mountain Resort
821:Battle of Ürümqi (1870)
217:unify the nearby tribes
3468:Great Qing Copper Coin
3356:Convention of Tientsin
3289:Annotated Bibliography
3237:Qing official headwear
2280:Battle of Shanhai Pass
1776:First Turkic Khaganate
1681:Dunnell, Ruth (2004).
1657:Tibet Past and Present
1654:Bell, Charles (1992).
901:
845:reconquered the region
779:
640:
575:
539:
449:
421:
341:
274:
173:
136:as well as ending the
128:After suppressing the
89:(before 1636) and the
35:
27:
3626:Tibet under Qing rule
3542:Draft History of Qing
3401:Treaty of Shimonoseki
3182:performance criticism
2786:Imperial Commissioner
2776:Great Qing Legal Code
2575:Eight-Nation Alliance
2558:Third plague pandemic
2468:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
2392:White Lotus Rebellion
1918:against Western Turks
1438:Smith 1997, pp. 125-6
1245:Environmental History
1213:Reardon-Anderson 2000
1201:Reardon-Anderson 2000
1189:Reardon-Anderson 2000
1165:Reardon-Anderson 2000
1153:Reardon-Anderson 2000
1141:Reardon-Anderson 2000
872:
770:
672:Dzungar Oirat Mongols
638:
573:
534:
454:Tibet under Qing rule
447:
413:Winter Palace of the
412:
339:
269:
210: – in
171:
33:
22:
3616:History of Manchuria
3473:Great Qing Gold Coin
3406:Treaty of Tarbagatai
3351:Convention of Peking
3231:Pentaglot Dictionary
3213:Literary inquisition
2923:Ever Victorious Army
2756:Deliberative Council
2660:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
2613:1905 Batang uprising
2553:Hundred Days' Reform
2443:Small Swords Society
2130:Greater Central Asia
1515:Tyler (2003), p. 61.
1472:L. J. Newby (2005).
983:Treaty of Thapathali
776:insurrection of 1864
665:, the Qing attacked
499:Polhané Sönam Topgyé
227:in reference to the
132:and the conquest of
105:had established the
3631:History of Xinjiang
3526:Anti-Qing sentiment
3376:Treaty of the Bogue
3316:Treaty of Nerchinsk
3248:Complete Tang Poems
2928:Green Standard Army
2811:Provincial governor
2781:Imperial Clan Court
2761:Diplomatic missions
2736:Consultative Bureau
2483:Tongzhi Restoration
2362:Afaqi Khoja revolts
2342:Ten Great Campaigns
2250:Jurchen unification
1525:从“斌静案”看清代驻疆官员与新疆的稳定
1324:Mullin 2001, p. 290
1119:, pp. 220–224.
1010:Ten Great Campaigns
955:Treaty of Nerchinsk
552:Green Standard Army
544:Green Standard Army
526:Green Standard Army
434:Front Gorlos Banner
270:Chongzheng Hall of
253:Treaty of Nerchinsk
3411:Treaty of Tientsin
3122:Western Qing tombs
3117:Eastern Qing tombs
2943:Peking Field Force
2687:Manchu Restoration
2580:Declaration of war
2533:Jindandao incident
2352:Lhasa riot of 1750
1333:Smith 1997, p. 125
902:
831:valley, including
780:
746:Ahmad Shah Durrani
641:
576:
540:
450:
422:
342:
275:
174:
140:in the 1680s, the
36:
28:
3598:
3597:
3509:
3508:
3421:Treaty of Whampoa
3416:Treaty of Wanghia
3391:Treaty of Nanking
3361:Li–Lobanov Treaty
3336:Chefoo Convention
3331:Burlingame Treaty
3202:Kangxi Dictionary
3107:Old Summer Palace
2938:Firearm Battalion
2741:Cup of Solid Gold
2695:
2694:
2640:Manchurian plague
2603:Late Qing reforms
2594:(1901–1912)
2528:Sikkim expedition
2458:Panthay Rebellion
2428:Taiping Rebellion
2404:(1801–1900)
2382:Sino-Nepalese War
2327:Dzungar–Qing Wars
2313:(1683–1799)
2241:(1616–1683)
2187:
2186:
2163:Chinese Turkestan
2111:
2110:
1932:Mongolian Plateau
1581:, pp. 76-77.
1094:978-0-521-12433-1
1005:Dzungar–Qing Wars
979:Emperor Manjushri
813:Khanate of Kokand
797:Muslim Rebellions
592:Yongzheng Emperor
461:, founder of the
249:Tsardom of Russia
239:, he and his son
107:Later Jin dynasty
3648:
3641:Qianlong Emperor
3575:New Qing History
3458:Qianlong Tongbao
3436:
3435:
3381:Treaty of Canton
3321:Unequal treaties
3127:Fuling Mausoleum
2726:Advisory Council
2655:Wuchang Uprising
2595:
2498:Tianjin Massacre
2463:Second Opium War
2405:
2367:Sino-Burmese War
2314:
2292:Battle of Penghu
2260:Seven Grievances
2242:
2235:
2234:
2214:
2207:
2200:
2191:
2190:
1876:
1875:
1864:
1732:
1725:
1718:
1709:
1708:
1699:
1698:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1651:
1645:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1624:
1600:
1594:
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1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
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1540:
1534:
1522:
1516:
1513:
1507:
1497:
1491:
1489:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1451:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1403:Dabringhaus 2014
1400:
1394:
1388:
1382:
1376:
1370:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1334:
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1322:
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1309:
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1276:
1240:
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1231:
1225:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1198:
1192:
1186:
1180:
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1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1105:
1099:
1098:
1080:
1074:
1071:
1015:New Qing History
975:Emperor of China
957:signed with the
926:Qianlong Emperor
879:Mongolian script
714:Qianlong Emperor
707:
696:
649:The area called
617:Qianlong Emperor
326:Daoguang Emperor
322:Qianlong Emperor
233:Seven Grievances
142:Dzungar–Qing War
109:that controlled
3656:
3655:
3651:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3645:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3590:Willow Palisade
3536:Chuang Guandong
3505:
3477:
3427:
3386:Treaty of Kulja
3371:Treaty of Aigun
3304:
3296:
3195:History of Ming
3147:
3141:
3079:
3073:
2999:Special regions
2994:
2933:Imperial Guards
2899:
2691:
2650:1911 Revolution
2596:
2593:
2586:
2563:Boxer Rebellion
2523:Sino-French War
2473:Amur Annexation
2418:First Opium War
2406:
2403:
2396:
2315:
2312:
2303:
2287:Great Clearance
2243:
2240:
2224:
2218:
2188:
2183:
2159:Western Regions
2152:Chinese Tartary
2142:Eurasian nomads
2107:
2064:against Dzungar
2050:
2031:against Mongols
2017:
1979:
1946:
1904:
1888:against Xiongnu
1871:Chinese empires
1865:
1856:
1748:Nomadic empires
1742:
1736:
1705:
1703:
1702:
1695:
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1675:
1668:
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1601:
1597:
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1585:
1577:
1573:
1565:
1561:
1553:
1549:
1541:
1537:
1532:Wayback Machine
1523:
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1111:
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1102:
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1068:
1063:
1020:Chinese Tartary
991:
916:and "China" in
881:from the left,
867:
861:
756:sent troops to
701:
690:
655:Dzungar Khanate
647:
633:
596:Dzungar Khanate
584:Khoshut Khanate
568:
479:Dzungar Khanate
475:Ganden Phodrang
463:Khoshut Khanate
456:
442:
348:
334:
257:Amur Annexation
237:Outer Manchuria
192:Tungusic people
180:
166:
119:Outer Manchuria
115:Northeast China
91:Dzungar Khanate
68:Outer Manchuria
64:Northeast China
17:
12:
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3453:Kangxi Tongbao
3450:
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3326:Boxer Protocol
3318:
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3273:
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3092:Forbidden City
3089:
3083:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3059:
3058:
3057:
3055:General of Ili
3052:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3038:List of ambans
3035:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3013:
3008:
3002:
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2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2503:Margary Affair
2500:
2495:
2493:Mudan incident
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2433:Nian Rebellion
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2209:
2202:
2194:
2185:
2184:
2182:
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2171:
2166:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2144:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2127:
2119:
2117:
2116:Related topics
2113:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2060:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2036:against Turpan
2033:
2027:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1989:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1956:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1914:
1912:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1898:Chief Official
1890:
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1882:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1859:
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1741:history series
1735:
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1701:
1700:
1693:
1673:
1666:
1646:
1635:
1595:
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1571:
1569:, p. 503.
1559:
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1508:
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1177:Scharping 1998
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1100:
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1064:
1062:
1059:
1058:
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1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1025:Chinese Empire
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
997:
990:
987:
963:Chinese khagan
910:modern Chinese
860:
857:
825:Russian Empire
785:Jahangir Khoja
754:Durrani Empire
730:General of Ili
724:ventures into
699:Khwāja-i Jahān
643:Main article:
632:
629:
567:
564:
495:Kangxi Emperor
487:Lha-bzang Khan
483:Tsewang Rabtan
471:5th Dalai Lama
452:Main article:
441:
438:
382:Kangxi Emperor
344:Main article:
333:
330:
282:Kangxi Emperor
261:Russian Empire
176:Main article:
165:
162:
152:, Qinghai and
146:Outer Mongolia
56:Outer Mongolia
52:Inner Mongolia
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9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3565:Manchu people
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3531:Canton System
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3512:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3496:Hubu Guanpiao
3494:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3299:
3291:
3290:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3261:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3228:
3226:
3225:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3183:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3146:Society &
3144:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3112:Summer Palace
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3102:Mukden Palace
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3078:Palaces &
3076:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3060:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3043:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3026:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2918:Eight Banners
2916:
2914:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2896:
2893:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2771:Grand Council
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2711:
2710:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2591:20th century
2589:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2401:19th century
2399:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2310:
2306:
2300:
2297:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2215:
2210:
2208:
2203:
2201:
2196:
2195:
2192:
2180:
2179:Greater China
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2013:Northern Yuan
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1965:Northern Liao
1963:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1927:against Tibet
1925:
1923:
1922:Eastern Turks
1919:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1907:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1833:Mongol Empire
1831:
1829:
1828:Khamag Mongol
1826:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1733:
1728:
1726:
1721:
1719:
1714:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1696:
1694:9781134362226
1690:
1686:
1685:
1677:
1669:
1667:9788120810679
1663:
1659:
1658:
1650:
1644:
1639:
1628:September 17,
1623:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1599:
1592:
1587:
1580:
1575:
1568:
1563:
1556:
1551:
1545:, p. 77.
1544:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1521:
1512:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1487:
1481:
1477:
1476:
1468:
1461:
1456:
1449:
1448:Millward 1998
1444:
1435:
1428:
1423:
1416:
1411:
1404:
1399:
1392:
1387:
1380:
1375:
1368:
1363:
1356:
1351:
1344:
1339:
1330:
1321:
1314:
1308:
1300:
1294:
1287:
1282:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1230:
1221:
1214:
1209:
1202:
1197:
1190:
1185:
1178:
1173:
1166:
1161:
1154:
1149:
1142:
1137:
1130:
1129:Richards 2003
1125:
1118:
1113:
1104:
1096:
1090:
1086:
1079:
1070:
1066:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
996:
993:
992:
986:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
899:
895:
891:
887:
886:Arabic script
884:
880:
876:
871:
866:
856:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
777:
773:
769:
765:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
710:Kumul Khanate
705:
700:
694:
689:
688:Burhān al-Dīn
685:
681:
677:
673:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
646:
637:
628:
626:
622:
618:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
588:Upper Mongols
585:
581:
572:
563:
559:
557:
553:
549:
545:
538:
533:
529:
527:
522:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
501:of Tsang and
500:
496:
492:
491:an expedition
488:
484:
480:
477:in 1642. The
476:
472:
469:and made the
468:
464:
460:
455:
446:
437:
435:
431:
426:
420:
416:
411:
407:
403:
399:
397:
392:
388:
383:
379:
375:
371:
366:
362:
358:
354:
347:
338:
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
293:
289:
287:
283:
278:
273:
272:Mukden Palace
268:
264:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
179:
170:
161:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
126:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
87:Northern Yuan
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
32:
26:
21:
3585:Treaty ports
3547:
3540:
3514:Other topics
3287:
3280:
3258:
3246:
3229:
3224:Peiwen Yunfu
3222:
3200:
3193:
3164:
3005:
2913:Beiyang Army
2895:Zongli Yamen
2751:Da-Qing Bank
2568:Red Lanterns
2221:Qing dynasty
2169:China proper
2135:Central Asia
2122:
2055:
1970:Eastern Liao
1960:Western Liao
1704:
1683:
1676:
1656:
1649:
1638:
1626:. Retrieved
1615:(20220303).
1612:
1608:
1598:
1593:, p. 4.
1586:
1579:Dunnell 2004
1574:
1567:Elliott 2001
1562:
1555:Dunnell 2004
1550:
1543:Dunnell 2004
1538:
1520:
1511:
1495:
1474:
1467:
1455:
1443:
1434:
1422:
1410:
1398:
1386:
1379:Elliott 2001
1374:
1362:
1350:
1338:
1329:
1320:
1312:
1307:
1298:
1293:
1281:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1229:
1220:
1208:
1196:
1184:
1172:
1160:
1148:
1136:
1124:
1117:Ebrey (2010)
1112:
1103:
1084:
1078:
1069:
934:China proper
929:
905:
903:
853:China proper
841:Zuo Zongtang
781:
726:Central Asia
682:nobles, the
648:
612:Nian Gengyao
577:
560:
541:
523:
493:sent by the
457:
427:
423:
415:Jebtsundamba
404:
400:
353:China proper
349:
294:
290:
286:Eight Banner
279:
276:
200:Heilongjiang
181:
127:
95:China proper
84:
46:'s realm in
44:Qing dynasty
39:
37:
3521:Aisin Gioro
3483:Paper money
3242:Qing poetry
2963:Wuwei Corps
2958:Shuishiying
2719:Family tree
1942:Tarim Basin
1391:Rawski 1998
1369:, pp. 81-2.
750:Afghanistan
742:Tarim Basin
702: [
691: [
511:Dalai Lamas
503:Kangchennas
430:Han Chinese
396:aristocracy
357:Ligden Khan
208:Aisin Gioro
184:Han Chinese
123:Ligdan Khan
117:as well as
3636:Inner Asia
3605:Categories
3189:Four Wangs
3080:mausoleums
3033:Golden Urn
3006:Inner Asia
2983:Xiang Army
2953:Hushenying
2878:Liangguang
2858:Liangjiang
2796:Lifan Yuan
2701:Government
2174:Sinosphere
2076:Lifan Yuan
1975:Later Liao
1739:Inner Asia
1460:Newby 2005
1286:Bulag 2012
1061:References
995:Lifan Yuan
971:Bogda Khan
863:See also:
459:Güshi Khan
241:Hong Taiji
158:Lifan Yuan
48:Inner Asia
3011:Manchuria
2978:Huai Army
2968:Yong Ying
2853:Shaan-Gan
2309:High Qing
2255:Later Jin
2088:Manchuria
2041:Manchuria
1998:Manchuria
1591:Zhao 2006
1478:. Brill.
1429:, p. 283.
1405:, p. 123.
1393:, p. 251.
1381:, p. 412.
1343:Wang 2011
1273:143541438
1215:, p. 509.
1203:, p. 508.
1191:, p. 507.
1167:, p. 506.
1155:, p. 505.
1143:, p. 504.
1131:, p. 141.
829:Ili River
817:Yettishar
809:Yaqub Beg
686:brothers
680:Altishahr
651:Dzungaria
556:Bannermen
365:Ejei Khan
310:Changchun
225:Great Jin
164:Manchuria
111:Manchuria
60:Manchuria
3463:Hongqian
3432:Currency
3302:Treaties
3208:Kaozheng
3155:Booi Aha
3097:Hetu Ala
3050:Timeline
3045:Xinjiang
3016:Mongolia
2973:Chu Army
2948:New Army
2905:Military
2843:Viceroys
2103:Xinjiang
2093:Mongolia
2069:genocide
2003:Mongolia
1838:Chagatai
1771:Göktürks
1557:, p. 83.
1528:Archived
1450:, p. 25.
1427:Yeh 2013
1417:, p. 60.
1415:Yeh 2009
1367:Dai 2009
1357:, p. 81.
1355:Dai 2009
1345:, p. 30.
1288:, p. 41.
1179:, p. 18.
989:See also
959:Russians
930:Zhongguo
922:Xinjiang
906:Zhongguo
883:Chagatai
676:smallpox
663:Amursana
631:Xinjiang
608:Polhanas
600:Xinjiang
387:congress
318:Ningguta
302:Fengtian
212:Jianzhou
154:Xinjiang
113:(modern
80:Xinjiang
3448:Zhiqian
3440:Coinage
3177:Economy
3148:culture
2883:Yun-Gui
2873:Min-Zhe
2868:Sichuan
2863:Huguang
2709:Emperor
2230:History
2147:Tartary
1937:Beiting
1852:Dzungar
1847:Timurid
1798:Tibetan
1761:Xianbei
1756:Xiongnu
1462:, p. 1.
1265:3985584
969:), as "
967:Uyghurs
918:English
894:Tibetan
890:Chinese
837:Tacheng
805:Shaanxi
793:Uyghurs
772:Tacheng
758:Kashgar
734:Huiyuan
580:Khoshut
566:Qinghai
548:Yue Fei
306:Tieling
298:Jinzhou
259:by the
223:of the
204:Nurhaci
188:Jurchen
103:Manchus
101:), the
76:Qinghai
58:, both
3062:Taiwan
2238:Early
2223:topics
1818:Mongol
1813:Kyrgyz
1808:Uyghur
1766:Rouran
1691:
1664:
1482:
1271:
1263:
1091:
948:, and
914:Manchu
898:Manchu
896:, and
762:Kokand
738:Ghulja
667:Ghulja
604:Xining
515:Ambans
481:under
391:Duolun
380:, the
374:Galdan
370:Oirats
361:Manchu
316:, and
134:Taiwan
66:) and
3254:Queue
3172:Dibao
3028:Tibet
2848:Zhili
2731:Amban
2098:Tibet
2081:Amban
2046:Tibet
2008:Tibet
1823:Tatar
1269:S2CID
1261:JSTOR
1000:Amban
833:Gulja
801:Gansu
706:]
695:]
684:Khoja
625:Gansu
621:Amban
519:Lhasa
467:Tsang
440:Tibet
314:Hulun
196:Jilin
150:Tibet
97:(see
72:Tibet
2990:Navy
2831:Ejen
2714:List
2056:Qing
2023:Ming
1985:Yuan
1952:Liao
1910:Tang
1803:Zubu
1689:ISBN
1662:ISBN
1630:2023
1480:ISBN
1089:ISBN
950:Ming
946:Song
942:Tang
803:and
760:and
722:Tang
720:and
697:and
419:Urga
221:Khan
198:and
190:, a
78:and
54:and
38:The
1880:Han
1617:doi
1253:doi
985:).
938:Han
799:in
789:Hui
748:of
718:Han
598:in
417:in
3607::
1920:/
1613:12
1611:.
1607:.
1502:.
1267:.
1259:.
1247:.
944:,
940:,
892:,
888:,
704:zh
693:zh
312:,
308:,
304:,
300:,
263:.
148:,
125:.
82:.
74:,
70:,
2213:e
2206:t
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1249:5
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778:.
62:(
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