Prehistory of Australia

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across their territory several times a year to exploit other seasonal food sources. In semi-arid areas, millet was harvested, stacked and threshed and the seeds stored for later use. In tropical areas the tops of yams were replanted. Flood argues that such practices are better classified as resource management than agriculture and that Aboriginal societies did not develop the systematic cultivation of crops or permanent villages such as existed in the Torres Strait Islands. Elizabeth Williams has called the inhabitants of the more settled regions of the Murray valley "complex hunter gatherers".

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appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts, the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow, and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes. Gene flow across the island-dotted 150-kilometre (93 mi)-wide Torres Strait, is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data, although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within the last 10,000 years it may have occurred - newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions.

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coastal islands were incorporated into local economies. There was a proliferation of stone tool, plant processing and landscape modification technologies. Elaborate fish and eel traps involving channels up to three kilometres long were in use in western Victoria from about 6,500 years ago. Semi-permanent collections of wooden huts on mounds also appeared in western Victoria, associated with a more systematic exploitation of new food sources in the wetlands.

464: 682:, and if they arrived around 70,000 years ago, they could have crossed the water from Timor, when the sea level was low – but if they came later, around 50,000 years ago, a more likely route would be through the Moluccas to New Guinea. Given that the likely landfall regions have been under around 50 metres of water for the last 15,000 years, it is unlikely that the timing will ever be established with certainty. 1406:). The inscriptions on the Jensen Bay coins identify a ruling Sultan of Kilwa, but it is unclear whether the ruler was from the 10th century or the 14th century. This discovery has been of interest to those historians who believe it likely that people made landfall in Australia or its offshore islands before the first generally accepted such discovery, by the Dutch sailor 973:(Philippines area) groups diverged from the Aboriginal about 36,000 years ago (and supporting evidence that these populations are descended from migrants taking an early "southern route" out of Africa, before other groups in the area), and also that the Indian and Australian populations mixed well before European contact, with this gene flow occurring during the Holocene ( 595: 920:

anthropological record between 5,000 years ago and 3,000 years ago, including the introduction of the dingo; the spread of the Australian Small Tool tradition; the appearance of plant-processing technologies, especially complex detoxification of cycads; and the expansion of the Pama-Nyungan language over seven-eighths of Australia". Although previously linked to the

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Peter Savolainen, Thomas Leitner, Alan N. Wilton, Elizabeth Matisoo-Smith, and Joakim Lundeberg (2004),"A detailed picture of the origin of the Australian dingo, obtained from the study of mitochondrial DNA"(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2004 Aug 17;

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creatures were not austere divinities, but fallible beings who happened to make the world and everything in it while going about their creaturely business. Traditional Aboriginal culture effortlessly fuses areas of understanding which Europeans 'naturally' keep separate: ecology, cosmology, theology,

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Aboriginal groups were semi-nomadic, generally ranging over a specific territory defined by natural features. Members of a group would enter the territory of another group through rights established by marriage and kinship or by invitation for specific purposes such as ceremonies and sharing abundant

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technology, investigating their divergence times from Y chromosomes in other continents, including comparing the haplogroup C chromosomes. The authors concluded that, although this does not disprove the presence of any Holocene gene flow or non-genetic influences from South Asia at that time, and the

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they had ceased to eat fish and use bone tools. Coastal Tasmanians switched from fish to abalone and crayfish and more Tasmanians moved to the interior. The Tasmanians built watercraft from reeds and bark and journeyed up to 10 kilometres offshore to visit islands and hunt for seals and muttonbirds.

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About 19,000 years ago temperatures and sea levels began to rise. Tasmania became separated from the mainland some 14,000 years ago, and between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago thousands of islands in the Torres Strait and around the coast of Australia were formed. Josephine Flood writes that the flooding

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A 2012 paper by Alan J. Redd et al. on the topic of migration from India around 4,000 years ago notes that the indicated influx period corresponds to the timing of various other changes, specifically mentioning "The divergence times reported here correspond with a series of changes in the Australian

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analysis confirmed this branching pattern, with the Leang Panninge individual branching off from the Near Oceanian clade after the Denisovan gene flow, although with the most supported topology indicating around 50% of a basal East Asian component contributing to the Leang Panninge genome (Fig. 3c,

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Taken together with a lower bound of the final settlement of Sahul at 37 kya (the date of the deepest population splits estimated by 1) it is reasonable to describe Papuans as either an almost even mixture between East Asians and a lineage basal to West and East Asians occurred sometimes between 45

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Malaspinas, A. S., Westaway, M. C., Muller, C., Sousa, V. C., Lao, O., Alves, I., Bergström, A., Athanasiadis, G., Cheng, J. Y., Crawford, J. E., Heupink, T. H., Macholdt, E., Peischl, S., Rasmussen, S., Schiffels, S., Subramanian, S., Wright, J. L., Albrechtsen, A., Barbieri, C., Dupanloup, I., et

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Aboriginal society was egalitarian with no formal government or chiefs. Authority rested with elders who held extensive ritual knowledge gained over many years. Group decisions were generally made through the consensus of elders. The traditional economy was cooperative, with males generally hunting

1142:(sea cucumber). Trade and social relationships developed which were reflected in Aboriginal art, ceremonies and oral traditions. Aboriginal people adopted dugout canoes and metal harpoon heads from the Indonesians which allowed them to better hunt dugong and turtle off the coast and nearby islands. 1104:

The Aboriginal population was confronted with significant changes to climate and environment. About 30,000 years ago, sea levels began to fall, temperatures in the south-east of the continent dropped by as much as 9 degrees Celsius, and the interior of Australia became more arid. About 20,000 years

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4,230 years ago). The researchers had two theories for this: either some Indians had contact with people in Indonesia who eventually transferred those genes from India to Aboriginal Australians, or that a group of Indians migrated all the way from India to Australia and intermingled with the locals

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Aboriginal Tasmanians were isolated from the mainland from about 14,000 years ago. As a result, they only possessed one quarter of the tools and equipment of the adjacent mainland and were without hafted axes, grinding technology, stone tipped weapons, spear throwers and the boomerang. By 3,700 BP

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was found to be genetically in between Basal-East-Asian and Australo-Papuans. The sample could be modeled as ~50% Papuan-related and ~50% Basal-East Asian-related (Andamanese Onge or Tianyuan). The authors concluded that Basal-East Asian ancestry was far more widespread and the peopling of Insular

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people first settled their islands around 4,000 years ago. Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. Agriculture also developed on some islands and

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Despite these interactions with neighbouring cultures, the basic structure of Aboriginal society was unchanged. Family groups were joined in bands and clans averaging about 25 people, each with a defined territory for foraging. Clans were attached to tribes or nations, associated with particular

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Sea levels stabilised at around their current level about 6,500 years ago. Warmer weather, wetter conditions and the new coastlines led to significant changes in Aboriginal social and economic organisation. New coastal societies emerged around tidal reefs, estuaries and flooded river valleys, and

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The extent to which some Aboriginal societies were agricultural is controversial. In the Lake Condah region of western Victoria the inhabitants built elaborate eel and fish traps and hundreds gathered in semi-permanent stone and bark huts during the eel season. However, these groups still moved

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The warmer climate was associated with new technologies. Small back-bladed stone tools appeared 15–19 thousand years ago. Wooden javelins and boomerangs have been found dating from 10,000 years ago. Stone points for spears have been found dating from 5–7 thousand years ago. Spear throwers were

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Taken together with a lower bound of the final settlement of Sahul at 37 kya it is reasonable to describe Papuans as either an almost even mixture between East-Eurasians and a lineage basal to West and East-Eurasians which occurred sometimes between 45 and 38kya, or as a sister lineage of

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Around 4,000 years ago the first phase of occupation of the Torres Strait Islands began. By 2,500 years ago more of the islands were occupied and a distinctive Torres Strait Island maritime culture emerged. Agriculture also developed on some islands and by 700 years ago villages appeared.

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technology, with the use of smaller tools. Human contact has thus been inferred, and genetic data of two kinds have been proposed to support a gene flow from India to Australia: firstly, signs of South Asian components in Aboriginal Australian genomes, reported on the basis of genome-wide

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was introduced about 4,000 years ago. Shell fish hooks appeared in Australia about 1,200 years ago and were probably introduced from the Torres Strait or by Polynesian seafarers. From the mid-1660s fishing vessels from Indonesia regularly visited the north coast of Australia in search of

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of India, recent testing of the mitochondrial DNA of dingoes shows a closer connection to the dogs of Eastern Asia and North America, suggesting an introduction as a result of the Austronesian expansion from Southern China to Timor over the last 5,000 years. A 2007 finding of kangaroo

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The re-excavation of Karnatukul (Serpent's Glen) has provided evidence for the human occupation of the Australian Western Desert to before 47,830 cal. BP (modelled median age). This new sequence is 20,000 years older than the previous known age for occupation at this

3174:

Bergström, Anders; Nagle, Nano; Chen, Yuan; McCarthy, Shane; Pollard, Martin O.; Ayub, Qasim; Wilcox, Stephen; Wilcox, Leah; Oorschot, Roland A.H. van; McAllister, Peter; Williams, Lesley; Xue, Yali; Mitchell, R. John; Tyler-Smith, Chris (21 March 2016).

878:, and gave rise to Aboriginal Australians, Papuans, the Andamanese, the AASI, as well as East/Southeast Asians, although Papuans may have also received some gene flow from an earlier group (xOoA), around 2%, next to additional archaic admixture in the 1083:

The direct cause of the mass extinctions is uncertain: it may have been fire, hunting, climate change or a combination of all or any of these factors. The degree of human agency in these extinctions is still a matter of discussion. With no large

905:, argues that the assumption of a single origin is tied into ethnic solidarity, and multiple entry was suppressed because it could be used to justify white seizure of Aboriginal lands, but this hypothesis is not supported by scientific studies. 885:

According to one study, Papuans could have either formed from a mixture between an East Eurasian lineage and lineage basal to West and East Asians, or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution.

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The map shows the probable extent of land and water at the time of the last glacial maximum and when the sea level was probably more than 150 m lower than today; it illustrates the formidable sea obstacle that migrants would have

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people, who, according to the myths, were in Australia in the earliest times, before the Macassans. The Baijini have been variously interpreted by modern researchers as a different group of presumably South East Asian people, such as

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East-Eurasians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution. We here chose to parsimoniously describe Papuans as a simple sister group of Tianyuan, cautioning that this may be just one out of six equifinal possibilities.

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There is considerable discussion among archaeologists as to the route taken by the first migrants to Australia, widely taken to be ancestors of the modern Aboriginal peoples. Migration took place during the closing stages of the

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in 1788, which marks the start of consistent written documentation of Australia. This period has been variously estimated, with most evidence suggesting that it goes back between 50,000 and 65,000 years. This era is referred as

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suburb of Sydney, numerous Aboriginal stone tools were found in Cranebrook Terraces gravel sediments having dates of 45,000 to 50,000 years BP. This would mean that there was human settlement in Sydney earlier than thought.

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PCA calculated on present-day and ancient individuals from eastern Eurasia and Oceania. PC1 (23,8%) distinguish East-Eurasians and Australo-Melanesians, while PC2 (6,3%) differentiates East-Eurasians along a North to South

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Principal component analysis (PCA) of ancient and modern day individuals from worldwide populations. Oceanians (Aboriginal Australians and Papuans) are most differentiated from both East-Eurasians and West-Eurasians.

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by Anders Bergström et al. excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia. The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in

2939:

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vegetation down and rapidly recycle soil nutrients with their dung, fuel build-up became more rapid and fires burned hotter, further changing the landscape. Against this theory is the evidence that in fact careful

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and loss of land as coastlines receded might have led to greater emphasis on territorial boundaries separating groups, stronger clan identity, and the development of the Rainbow Serpent and other mythologies.

1566: 655:. Nevertheless, the sea still presented a major obstacle so it is theorised that these ancestral people reached Australia by island hopping. Two routes have been proposed. One follows an island chain between 694:(formerly known as Malakunanja II) fossils and a rock shelter have been dated to around 65,000 years old, although a study in 2020 suggests that human habitation at the site was more recent. According to 3409:

Rowan, John; Faith, J. T. (2019). "The Paleoecological Impact of Grazing and Browsing: Consequences of the Late Quaternary Large Herbivore Extinctions". In Gordon, Iain J.; Prins, Herbert H. T. (eds.).

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has suggested an alternative theory, involving accidental colonisation as a result of tsunamis. The journey still required sea travel, however, making them some of the world's earliest mariners.

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Carlhoff, Selina; Duli, Akin; Nägele, Kathrin; Nur, Muhammad; Skov, Laurits; Sumantri, Iwan; Oktaviana, Adhi Agus; Hakim, Budianto; Burhan, Basran; Syahdar, Fardi Ali; McGahan, David P. (2021).

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The minimum widely accepted time-frame for the arrival of humans in Australia is placed at least 48,000 years ago. Many sites dating from this time period have been excavated. In Arnhem Land

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Asians and a lineage basal to West and East Asians occurred sometimes between 45 and 38kya, or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution.

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had encounters with various visitors for many thousands of years. People and traded goods moved freely between Australia and New Guinea up to and even after the eventual flooding of the

1232:"They developed steepling thought-structures – intellectual edifices so comprehensive that every creature and plant had its place within it. They travelled light, but they were walking 846:

sees the new model as a starting point for collaboration with Aboriginal people to help uncover their history. The new models suggest that the first people may have first landed in the

1062:, species significantly larger than humans, disappeared, and many of the smaller species disappeared too. All told, about 60 different vertebrates became extinct, including the genus 5697: 4047: 1247:

These dramatic narratives identified the recurrent and therefore the timeless and the significant within the fleeting and the idiosyncratic. They were also very human, charged with

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and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia. It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians. The

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were elevated into drama by the development of multiple and multi-level narratives: narratives which made the intricate relationships between these observed phenomena memorable.

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large game while females gathered local staples such as small animals, shellfish, vegetables, fruits, seeds and nuts. Food was shared within groups and exchanged across groups.

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It is unknown how many populations settled in Australia prior to European colonisation. Both "trihybrid" and single-origin hypotheses have received extensive discussion.

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Roberts, R.G., Flannery, T et al. (2001) "New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: continent wide extinction about 46,000 years ago" (Science, Vol. 292, 8 June 2001).

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visitors to Australia who may have visited Arnhem Land before the Macassans, as a mythological reflection of the experiences of some Yolŋu people who have travelled to

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differences are being studied to find possible answers, but there is still insufficient evidence to distinguish a "wave invasion model" from a "single settlement" one.

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Clarke, Robin L. (1983), "Pollen and Charcoal Evidence for the Effects of Aboriginal Burning on Vegetation in Australia" (Archaeology in Oceania, Vol. 18, No. 1983).

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Genetics and material culture support repeated expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a population hub out of Afri, Vallini et al. 2021 (October 15, 2021) Quote: "

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Genetics and material culture support repeated expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a population hub out of Afri, Vallini et al. 2021 (October 15, 2021) Quote: "

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Genetics and material culture support repeated expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a population hub out of Africa, Vallini et al. 2022 (April 4, 2022) Quote: "

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Aboriginal people have no cultural memory of living anywhere outside Australia. Nevertheless, the people living along the northern coastline of Australia, in the

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in WA at around 50,000 years (20,000 years earlier than previously thought), and it was shown that human habitation had been continuous at the site since then.

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seasonal foods. As all natural features of the land were created by ancestral beings, a group's particular country provided physical and spiritual nourishment.

2858: 2387:"Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date" 2172:"Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date" 1611:"Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date" 2603:

McDonald, Josephine; Reynen, Wendy; Petchey, Fiona; Ditchfield, Kane; Byrne, Chae; Vannieuwenhuyse, Dorcas; Leopold, Matthias; Veth, Peter (September 2018).

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Wroe, S. & Field, J. (2006) "A review of the evidence of the human role in the extinction of Australian megafauna and an alternative explanation" (

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resulted in decreases of sea levels by more than 100 metres in Australasia. People appear to have arrived by sea during a period of glaciation, when

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The earliest evidence of humans in Australia has been variously estimated, with most scholars, as at 2023, dating it between 50,000 and 65,000 years

1214:

were widely practised as a means of birth control or dealing with deformities, injuries or illness which might impair the functioning of the group.

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Alan J. Redd; June Roberts-Thomson; Tatiana Karafet; Michael Bamshad; Lynn B. Jorde; J.M. Naidu; Bruce Walsh; Michael F. Hammer (16 April 2002).

866: 1146:

languages and country. At the time of European contact there were about 600 tribes or nations and 250 distinct languages with various dialects.

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with diverse economies and societies. There were about 600 tribes or nations and 250 languages with various dialects. Certain groups engaged in

3782:

Berndt, R.M & C.H. The World of the First Australians; Aboriginal traditional life, past and present" (Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra).

3335: 2773: 492: 4797: 2239:"Gerard Rennick says there's no archaeological evidence to prove Indigenous Australians have been here for 60,000 years. What are the facts?" 5062: 1184:

Behaviour was governed by strict rules regarding responsibilities to and from uncles, aunts, brothers and sisters as well as in-laws. The

518:

rather than history because knowledge of this time period does not derive from written documentation. However, some argue that Indigenous

1015:. There is evidence of the deliberate use of fire to shape the Australian environment 46,000 years ago. One explanation being the use by 341: 1054:

The shoreline of Tasmania and Victoria about 14,000 years ago, as sea levels were rising, showing some of the human archaeological sites

5682: 5394: 5334: 4318: 1439: 1207:. Female initiation often involved purification through smoke or bathing, and sometimes scarification or the removal of finger joints. 232: 152: 80: 3938:"Aboriginal-Makassan interactions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in northern Australia and contemporary sea rights claims" 4565: 3350: 2343: 302: 2674:"Rock-art of the Western Desert and Pilbara: Pigment dates provide new perspectives on the role of art in the Australian arid zone" 2430: 2215: 2038:

Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). "The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.).

1654: 706:) 49,000-45,000 years ago from both the east (clockwise, along the coast, from northern Australia) and the west (anti-clockwise). 548:

At the time of first European contact, estimates of the Aboriginal population range from 300,000 to one million. They were complex

1177:. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land. 857: 5508: 108: 3054: 969:

data from a pool of Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans, island Southeast Asians and Indians. It found that the New Guinea and

5474: 5409: 5384: 5358: 4839: 4649: 4457: 4371: 2703: 2490: 237: 85: 2954:

Genomic insights into the human population history of Australia and New Guinea, University of Cambridge, Bergström et al. 2018

4735: 4575: 4255: 4181: 4137: 4112: 4087: 3868: 3621: 3497: 3431: 2533: 2369: 2301: 2238: 2047: 1765: 1726: 1687: 1524: 1497: 1266: 1189: 585: 1583: 5379: 5285: 4851: 4391: 4386: 4381: 1308:

over 2500 years ago, and cultural interactions continued via this route with the Aboriginal people of northeast Australia.

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as a tool to drive game, to produce a green flush of new growth to attract animals, and to open up impenetrable forest. In

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C∗, with the most recent common ancestor around 5,000 years ago. The first type of evidence comes from a 2013 study by the

192: 103: 98: 93: 1105:

ago, New Guinea and Tasmania were connected to the Australian continent, which was more than a quarter larger than today.

5238: 5182: 5077: 4583: 4417: 4331: 3727:

Gammage, Bill (October 2011). The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia. Allen & Unwin. pp. 281–304.

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Gammage, Bill (October 2011). The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia. Allen & Unwin. pp. 281–304.

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of east Africa. Only one such coin had ever previously been found outside east Africa (unearthed during an excavation in

1068:(very large marsupial herbivores that looked rather like hippos), several large flightless birds, carnivorous kangaroos, 753: 430: 167: 132: 3937: 2101: 5245: 4376: 4356: 485: 5469: 5404: 5353: 4787: 4688: 4588: 4508: 4442: 4202: 4022: 3749: 3646: 3624:

Dixon says "There were around 600 distinct tribes in Australia, speaking between them about 200 different languages."

3597: 3415: 3311: 2477: 2469: 2322: 2081: 2022: 1887: 1870: 1836: 1423: 365: 282: 5349: 4515: 4452: 4437: 307: 287: 242: 222: 202: 127: 5278: 4956: 4755: 4745: 4681: 4422: 4396: 1324: 1158: 831: 172: 147: 3658:

Harold Koch, p. 23, "An overview of Australian traditional languages" in Gerhard Leitner, Ian G. Malcolm (eds),

2584:

Pierce, R. H.; Barbetti, Mike (2014). "A 38,000-year-old archaeological site at Upper Swan, Western Australia".

5728: 5723: 5571: 5042: 4941: 4661: 4639: 4545: 4351: 4311: 4230: 1411: 950: 913: 741: 275: 162: 66: 3897: 541:

is perhaps the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia. The oldest human remains found are at

5192: 5109: 4985: 4834: 4827: 4698: 4644: 4447: 4427: 3737: 2699:"Serpents Glen (Karnatukul): New Histories for Deep time Attachment to Country in Australia's Western Desert" 2678: 2010: 1386:

In 1944, a small number of copper coins with Arabic inscriptions were discovered on a beach in Jensen Bay on

1185: 478: 292: 227: 217: 177: 4290: 4008: 3241:

Pugach, Irina; Delfin, Frederick; Gunnarsdóttir, Ellen; Kayser, Manfred; Stoneking, Mark (29 January 2013).

581: 5637: 5434: 5414: 5344: 5177: 4971: 4708: 4671: 4550: 4540: 4412: 1919:"Friday essay: traps, rites and kurrajong twine – the incredible ingenuity of Indigenous fishing knowledge" 1256:

social morality, art, comedy, tragedy – the observed and the richly imagined fused into a seamless whole."

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Some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups also practised ritual cannibalism in rare circumstances.

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reached Australia about 4,000 years ago, and around the same time there were changes in language, with the

561: 425: 270: 5501: 4946: 4904: 4899: 4846: 4593: 4560: 4488: 197: 2966:

and 38kya, or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution.

2859:"Almost all living people outside of Africa trace back to a single migration more than 50,000 years ago" 1358:

people in Australian Aboriginal communities and vice versa, as a result of intermarriage and migration.

631:

were joined to the continent of Australia. The continental coastline extended much further out into the

5012: 4916: 4770: 4725: 4629: 4247: 4129: 4014: 3455: 1031:

forest, open forest became grassland and fire-tolerant species became more predominant: in particular,

589: 450: 389: 353: 207: 2461: 5561: 5132: 5089: 5037: 4936: 4782: 4750: 4666: 4656: 4624: 4304: 2495: 1343: 770:, was inhabited at least 40,000 years ago. The oldest known site is Wareen Cave, dated to this time. 510: 297: 212: 137: 5449: 5047: 5032: 4879: 4715: 4676: 4503: 2385:

Williams, Martin A. J.; Spooner, Nigel A.; McDonnell, Kathryn; O'Connell, James F. (January 2021).

2170:

Williams, Martin A. J.; Spooner, Nigel A.; McDonnell, Kathryn; O'Connell, James F. (January 2021).

1609:

Williams, Martin A. J.; Spooner, Nigel A.; McDonnell, Kathryn; O'Connell, James F. (January 2021).

1552:

al., Willerslev, E. (2016). A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia. Nature, 538(7624), 207–214.

729: 1011:

indicates that fire was already a significant part of the Australian landscape over 100,000 years

525:

Human habitation of the Australian continent began with the migration of the ancestors of today's

5459: 5454: 5197: 5072: 5052: 5027: 5007: 4760: 4730: 4555: 4432: 4079: 2605:"Karnatukul (Serpent's Glen): A new chronology for the oldest site in Australia's Western Desert" 1305: 1166: 989: 902: 679: 568: 187: 5546: 5494: 5301: 5104: 5082: 5057: 5022: 5002: 4966: 4804: 4775: 4765: 4740: 4703: 4634: 4471: 4366: 2808: 1428: 1098: 1070: 941: 733: 526: 52: 3967: 3700: 3107: 1677: 1514: 5596: 5517: 5167: 5099: 4997: 4951: 4814: 4720: 4607: 4493: 2451: 1755: 1716: 1293: 1288:

However, trade and intercourse between the separated lands continued across the newly formed

377: 5667: 5591: 5339: 5231: 5202: 5124: 4961: 4931: 4867: 4822: 4535: 4530: 4498: 4483: 4339: 3256: 3190: 3127: 2993: 2618: 2398: 2183: 2118: 1622: 1133:

On the Australian mainland, some innovations were imported from neighbouring cultures. The

874:

Phylogenetic data suggests that an early Eastern Eurasian lineage trifurcated somewhere in

783: 418: 247: 56: 33: 4277: 4268: 2457:

Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond

1350:

and items such as tobacco and tobacco pipes, Macassan words in Aboriginal languages (e.g.

8: 5586: 5576: 5566: 5556: 5152: 5094: 4926: 4889: 4619: 1489: 1378:

with the Macassans and came back, or, in more fringe views, even as visitors from China.

1336: 1278: 1274: 834:. The routes, dubbed "superhighways" by the authors, are similar to current highways and 827: 780:

Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage

757: 648: 413: 401: 394: 382: 346: 265: 4273: 3863:(1. ed. publ. in Great Britain ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson Longman. p. 16. 3260: 3194: 3131: 2997: 2622: 2402: 2386: 2187: 2171: 2122: 1626: 1610: 1479: 1300:

affording intermediary stopping points. The islands were settled by different seafaring

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Climate, Clothing, and Agriculture in Prehistory: Linking Evidence, Causes, and Effects

1646: 1450: 1395: 1196: 1192:, with restrictions on intermarrying dictated by the moiety an individual belonged to. 1094: 1002: 898: 709: 553: 542: 4151: 3140: 3109: 2313:

Ron Laidlaw "Aboriginal Society before European settlement" in Tim Gurry (ed.) (1984)

5444: 5425: 5389: 5325: 5142: 4884: 4251: 4226: 4198: 4177: 4157: 4133: 4108: 4083: 4018: 3923: 3864: 3821: 3813: 3809: 3745: 3642: 3617: 3593: 3493: 3441: 3427: 3317: 3307: 3284: 3218: 3145: 3110:"Gene Flow from the Indian Subcontinent to Australia: Evidence from the Y Chromosome" 3058: 3027: 3009: 2906: 2837: 2825: 2803: 2734: 2722: 2673: 2646: 2549:

Stockton, Eugene D.; Nanson, Gerald C. (April 2004). "Cranebrook Terrace Revisited".

2529: 2473: 2465: 2426: 2414: 2365: 2339: 2318: 2297: 2211: 2199: 2156: 2144: 2077: 2043: 2018: 1978: 1866: 1832: 1761: 1722: 1683: 1650: 1638: 1520: 1493: 1387: 851: 843: 695: 615:, when sea levels were much lower than they are today. Repeated episodes of extended 509:

is the period between the first human habitation of the Australian continent and the

406: 370: 358: 3833: 2774:"Researchers demystify the secrets of ancient Aboriginal migration across Australia" 47: 5259: 4693: 3805: 3419: 3274: 3264: 3208: 3198: 3157: 3135: 3123: 3017: 3001: 2984: 2896: 2817: 2712: 2636: 2626: 2558: 2517: 2406: 2289: 2191: 2134: 2126: 2109: 1966: 1630: 1485: 1211: 847: 664: 468: 182: 1757:

Archaeological Dimension of World Heritage: From Prevention to Social Implications

4241: 4216: 4192: 4123: 4098: 3181: 3114: 2631: 1799: 1570: 1560: 1407: 1399: 1237: 1225: 1016: 983: 854:

about 60,000 years ago, and had settled across the continent within 6,000 years.

839: 811: 703: 620: 549: 4076:

Between the Murray and the Sea. Aboriginal Archaeology in Southeastern Australia

3423: 2884: 5439: 5137: 4169: 3947:(1). Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies: 6–7 3919: 3248:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3005: 2821: 2804:"Landscape rules predict optimal superhighways for the first peopling of Sahul" 2040:

The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia

1957:

Williams, Elizabeth (2015). "Complex hunter-gatherers: a view from Australia".

1391: 1316: 1221: 1204: 1012: 890: 819: 795: 782:

has mapped the likely migration routes of the peoples as they moved across the

721: 699: 616: 604: 519: 3972:. Volume 8 of Human relations area files: Murngin. F. W. Cheshire. p. 34. 3228: 3203: 3082:

The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847

1970: 1292:, whose 150 km-wide channel remained readily navigable with the chain of 5712: 5464: 4212: 4165: 4147: 3817: 3321: 3013: 2910: 2726: 2525: 2455: 2418: 2203: 1642: 1347: 1320: 1289: 1174: 807: 791: 745: 652: 3269: 2901: 564:. The extent to which some groups engaged in agriculture is controversial. 3288: 3222: 3149: 3031: 2829: 2683: 2654: 2650: 2148: 1444: 1200: 1024: 954: 823: 557: 3825: 3793: 3243:"Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia" 790:, but back then part of the mainland. The modelling is based on data from 5270: 5207: 5067: 3794:"RituaL mutilation. Subincision of the penis among Australian Aborigines" 3660:

The habitat of Australia's aboriginal languages: past, present and future

1362: 1301: 1297: 1282: 1270: 1195:

Male initiation usually occurred at puberty and the rites often included

1089: 1050: 1028: 921: 894:

Southeast Asia and Oceania was more complex than previously anticipated.

835: 815: 767: 644: 640: 612: 538: 530: 5486: 4125:

Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory

2885:"A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia" 2570: 2130: 4243:

A place for strangers: towards a history of Australian Aboriginal being

2139: 1456: 1355: 1332: 1139: 1064: 1032: 966: 958: 945: 933:

suggested that this genetic expansion may have been a two-way process.

875: 803: 749: 717: 691: 675: 624: 534: 515: 3467:

Gammage, Bill (2011), "The Biggest Estate of Earth" (Allen and Unwin).

2410: 2195: 1634: 1553: 1220:

Describing prehistoric Aboriginal culture and society during her 1999

545:

in New South Wales, which have been dated to around 41,000 years ago.

4327: 4296: 4222: 4218:

Djanggawul: An Aboriginal Religious Cult of North-Eastern Arnhem Land

4040:"Were the African coins found in Australia from a wrecked Arab dhow?" 2384: 2361: 2169: 1608: 1433: 1252: 1085: 1076: 1059: 1044: 1008: 799: 632: 142: 3708:, Records of the Western Australian Museum 086–092 (2011) Supplement 3390:

Gammage, Bill (2011) "The Biggest Estate on Earth (Allen and Unwin).

2717: 2698: 1251:

significance but with pathos, and with humour, too – after all, the

2609: 1375: 1328: 1248: 996: 930: 787: 763: 725: 656: 628: 635:, and Australia and New Guinea formed a single landmass (known as 5310: 3037: 2741: 1812:

McCalman, Janet; Kipen, Rebecca (2013). "Population and health".

1366: 1339:

to trade with the Chinese since at least the early 18th century.

1285:

by rising sea levels, which was completed about 6,000 years ago.

1162: 1040: 970: 659:

and New Guinea and the other reaches North Western Australia via

1718:

The Bone Readers: Science and Politics in Human Origins Research

1323:) have fished off the coast of Australia for hundreds of years. 740:

Archaeological evidence indicates human habitation at the upper

3240: 2602: 2482: 1241: 1036: 713: 2100:

Clarkson, Chris; Jacobs, Zenobia; et al. (19 July 2017).

1365:

have preserved accounts of the trepang-catching, rice-growing

901:, known for his belief that Aboriginal pre-history has become 594: 3304:

The ocean of churn: how the Indian Ocean shaped human history

2099: 1371: 1312: 1233: 1170: 1134: 937: 879: 660: 636: 2802:

Crabtree, S. A.; White, D. A.; et al. (29 April 2021).

2102:"Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago" 5315: 2980:"Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea" 1403: 1342:

There was a high degree of cultural exchange, evidenced in

926: 3173: 2336:

First Footprints - the epic story of the first Australians

2261: 2259: 1715:

Tuniz, Claudio; Gillespie, Richard; Jones, Cheryl (2016).

1021:

The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia

3490:

The Flooded Earth. Our Future in a World Without Ice Caps

2042:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 34–35. 678:

writes that the first wave may have been prompted by the

672:

First Footprints: The Epic Story of the First Australians

3840: 3662:. Says that some 250 distinct languages present in 1788. 1095:

seasonal fires from Aboriginal land management practices

889:

A Holocene hunter-gatherer sample (Leang_Panninge) from

4194:

Australian Dreaming: 40,000 Years of Aboriginal History

3966:

Berndt, Ronald Murray; Berndt, Catherine Helen (1954).

3877: 3798:

The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology

3372: 2271: 2256: 1113:

probably developed more recently than 6,500 years ago.

818:, and it is intended to compare the modelling with the 3649:

Estimates 200 languages and over 600 dialects in 1788.

3351:"Research shows ancient Indian migration to Australia" 3057:. Keith Windschuttle (The Sydney Line). Archived from 2237:

McCutchan, Ellen; Campbell, David (8 September 2023).

1188:

observed by many communities included a division into

1058:

The changes to the fauna were even more dramatic: the

3988: 3976: 2977: 2801: 1331:

regularly visited the coast of northern Australia to

4276: by Anders Bergström et al. available under the 3177:"Deep Roots for Aboriginal Australian Y Chromosomes" 2542: 1888:"How Aboriginal burning changed Australia's climate" 4100:

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These coins were later identified as from the 997:Advent of fire farming and megafauna extinctions 586:History of Indigenous Australians § Origins 3702:Revisiting the 'Neolithic Problem' in Australia 3671:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 27, 189–91, 194–97 3583: 3581: 1381: 3744:. Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing. 3637:in Witold Tulasiewicz, Joseph I. Zajda (eds), 3053:Windschuttle, Keith; Gillin, Tim (June 2002). 2583: 2548: 2017:. Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing. 1506: 1074:, a five-metre snake, a five-metre lizard and 744:by about 40,000 years ago. A 2018 study using 5502: 5286: 4312: 3526: 3524: 3475: 3473: 3234: 3164: 3093: 3091: 2095: 2093: 1854: 1811: 1101:like those seen since European colonisation. 773: 486: 3965: 3736: 3578: 3566:Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). pp. 39–41 3557:Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). pp. 34–35 3530:Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). pp. 36–38 3479:Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). pp. 29–32 3079: 2690: 2671: 2596: 2009: 1965:(232). Cambridge University Press: 310–321. 1814:The Cambridge History of Australia, volume 1 1260: 908: 766:, which was connected to the continent by a 1831:. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. pp. 30–35. 1747: 1682:. Cambridge University Press. p. 237. 1669: 1519:. Little, Brown Book Group. pp. 111–. 1512: 1346:, the introduction of technologies such as 5509: 5495: 5300: 5293: 5279: 4319: 4305: 3858: 3641:, James Nicholas Publishers, Albert Park, 3521: 3470: 3408: 3334:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3088: 3055:"The extinction of the Australian pygmies" 2090: 1584:"When did modern humans get to Australia?" 1440:European maritime exploration of Australia 1224:, Australian historian and anthropologist 1027:claims that dense forest became more open 582:Early human migrations § Near Oceania 493: 479: 5516: 4121: 3348: 3342: 3278: 3268: 3212: 3202: 3139: 3021: 2900: 2716: 2640: 2630: 2277: 2265: 2138: 2071: 1460:, a 2006 film about Australian prehistory 1124: 944:spreading over most of the mainland, and 4146: 3539:Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). p. 32 2696: 2665: 1956: 1753: 1675: 1049: 865: 856: 593: 4096: 4073: 4006: 3969:Arnhem Land: its history and its people 3935: 3791: 3773:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 25–27, 146 3718:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 25–27, 146 3592:. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. p. 12. 3306:. Gurgaon, Haryana, India. p. 59. 2516: 2355: 1991:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 25–27, 146 1886:Wyrwoll, Karl-Heinz (11 January 2012). 1885: 1865:. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. p. 12. 1477: 953:data; and secondly, the existence of a 786:to its southern reaches of what is now 712:suggests that they lived in and around 26:This article is part of a series on the 5719:Australian Aboriginal cultural history 5711: 4326: 4211: 4190: 3982: 3587: 3575:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 21–22, 37 3412:The Ecology of Browsing and Grazing II 3301: 2889:Human Population Genetics and Genomics 2704:Bulletin of the History of Archaeology 1860: 1851:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 21–22, 37 1516:Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World 1354:for white person), and descendants of 748:dated evidence of human habitation at 522:should be accorded an equal status. 5490: 5274: 4300: 4239: 3994: 3895: 3883: 3846: 3698: 3635:Language Politics and Minority Rights 3414:. Ecological Studies. Vol. 239. 3378: 2917: 2771: 2759: 2488: 1929:from the original on 11 February 2024 1916: 1826: 1481:Rethinking Oral History and Tradition 590:Aboriginal Australians § Origins 3639:Language awareness in the curriculum 3616:, Cambridge University Press, 2010. 2882: 2876: 1845: 1820: 1805: 1793:"1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 2002" 1774:from the original on 3 December 2023 1735:from the original on 3 December 2023 1696:from the original on 3 December 2023 1533:from the original on 3 December 2023 698:research, Aboriginal people reached 193:1901 Federal Flag Design Competition 3852: 3764:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 239–40 3689:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 163–69 3680:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 161–62 3569: 3518:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 233–35 3509:Flood, Josephine (2019). pp. 232–33 3349:MacDonald, Anna (15 January 2013). 2883:Yang, Melinda A. 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Dixon, p. 18, 3416:Springer International Publishing 3227:An open access article under the 2522:A Very Short History of the World 1898:from the original on 15 July 2023 1581: 1424:Australian Aboriginal sacred site 822:of Aboriginal peoples, including 4272: This article incorporates 4267: 4050:from the original on 6 July 2013 4038:Jonathan Gornall (29 May 2013). 4031: 4000: 3810:10.1097/00000433-198309000-00009 3458:, Vol. 25, No. 21-22, Nov 2006). 2358:Archaeology of Ancient Australia 1760:. Springer Science. p. 41. 572:villages appeared by the 1300s. 462: 46: 4066: 3959: 3929: 3912: 3889: 3859:Rubinstein, William D. (2004). 3785: 3776: 3767: 3758: 3730: 3721: 3712: 3692: 3683: 3674: 3665: 3652: 3627: 3606: 3560: 3551: 3542: 3533: 3512: 3503: 3492:, Basic Books, New York, 2010, 3482: 3461: 3448: 3402: 3393: 3384: 3363: 3295: 3101: 3073: 3046: 2971: 2957: 2948: 2931: 2851: 2795: 2765: 2577: 2510: 2445: 2349: 2328: 2307: 2283: 2230: 2076:. Black Inc. pp. 288–289. 2065: 2056: 2031: 1236:, and walking encyclopedias of 1159:Australian Aboriginal mythology 5537:Federated States of Micronesia 1917:Clark, Anna (31 August 2023). 1471: 716:for at least 30,000 years. In 1: 3945:Australian Aboriginal Studies 3141:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)00789-3 2772:Morse, Dana (30 April 2021). 2679:Australian Aboriginal Studies 1513:Oppenheimer, Stephen (2013). 1464: 974: 832:the many Aboriginal languages 742:Swan River, Western Australia 639:), connected by an extensive 5399: 3080:Windschuttle, Keith (2002). 2697:McDonald, Jo (2 July 2020). 2632:10.1371/journal.pone.0202511 1447:caves, destroyed in May 2020 1382:Possible link to east Africa 1240:. Detailed observations of 942:Pama-Nyungan language family 7: 4153:The Prehistory of Australia 3898:"Cannibals and Colonialism" 3424:10.1007/978-3-030-25865-8_3 3122:(8). Orlando, Florida, US: 2682:(2008/1): 4–21 – via 2338:; Allen & Unwin; 2013; 1417: 1361:The myths of the people of 957:(male) lineage, designated 830:and linguistic features of 86:European exploration (land) 10: 5745: 5450:Settlement of the Americas 4248:Cambridge University Press 4130:Cambridge University Press 4097:Blainey, Geoffrey (1976). 4015:Cambridge University Press 3614:The Languages of Australia 3456:Quaternary Science Reviews 3041:Supplementary Figs. 7–11). 3006:10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6 2822:10.1038/s41562-021-01106-8 1000: 774:Migration routes and waves 579: 575: 451:List of years in Australia 81:European exploration (sea) 5628: 5605: 5524: 5424: 5369: 5324: 5308: 5225: 5123: 4993: 4984: 4875: 4866: 4813: 4689:Intelligence and security 4615: 4606: 4574: 4479: 4470: 4405: 4347: 4338: 4191:Isaacs, Jennifer (2006). 4122:Lourandos, Harry (1997). 3896:Biber, Katherine (2005). 3204:10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.028 2496:The Sydney Morning Herald 2072:Griffiths, Billy (2018). 1971:10.1017/S0003598X00052182 1827:Flood, Josephine (2019). 1754:Castillo, Alicia (2015). 1721:. Routledge. p. 43. 1261:Contact outside Australia 981:However, a 2016 study in 909:Changes c. 4000 years ago 511:colonisation of Australia 5683:Northern Mariana Islands 5460:Western hunter-gatherers 4007:Needham, Joseph (1971). 3936:Russell, Denise (2004). 3908:(4) – via AustLii. 3740:; Walshe, Keryn (2021). 3588:Broome, Richard (2019). 3302:Sanyal, Sanjeev (2016). 2748:Veth & O'Connor 2013 2315:The European Occupation. 2062:Flood (2019). pp. 198-99 2013:; Walshe, Keryn (2021). 1861:Broome, Richard (2019). 1829:The Original Australians 752:(Serpent's Glen) in the 5648:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 5455:Ancient North Eurasians 4174:Prehistory of Australia 4080:Sydney University Press 4074:Frankel, David (2017). 3792:Pounder, D. J. (1983). 3270:10.1073/pnas.1211927110 2902:10.47248/hpgg2202010001 2489:Macey, Richard (2007). 2462:Oxford University Press 2356:Hiscock, Peter (2008). 1798:16 January 2022 at the 1559:3 December 2023 at the 1306:Torres Strait Islanders 619:during the Pleistocene 562:semi-permanent shelters 507:prehistory of Australia 5518:Prehistory of Oceania 5302:Early human migrations 5083:Indigenous Australians 4584:States and territories 3590:Aboriginal Australians 3488:Peter D. Ward, p. 30, 2809:Nature Human Behaviour 2586:Archaeology in Oceania 2551:Archaeology in Oceania 1863:Aboriginal Australians 1676:Gilligan, Ian (2018). 1429:Australian archaeology 1258: 1125:Culture and technology 1071:Wonambi naracoortensis 1055: 929:on the pariah dogs of 871: 863: 600: 569:Torres Strait Islander 527:Aboriginal Australians 5729:Prehistory by country 5724:Prehistory of Oceania 5631:and other territories 4377:Territorial evolution 4176:. Allen & Unwin. 3902:Australian Law Review 3699:White, Peter (2006), 3633:Kerry Mallan, p. 53, 3098:101(33): 12387–12390. 1586:. Australian Museum. 1315:" fishermen from the 1304:cultures such as the 1294:Torres Strait Islands 1230: 1173:spirit beings formed 1053: 1001:Further information: 869: 860: 597: 4823:Cabinet of Australia 4798:Government ministers 4566:World Heritage Sites 4372:European exploration 4240:Swain, Tony (1993). 1569:15 June 2022 at the 826:stories, as well as 784:Australian continent 469:Australia portal 68:Timeline and periods 57:Kakadu National Park 4895:Gross state product 3861:Genocide: a history 3261:2013PNAS..110.1803P 3195:2016CBio...26..809B 3132:2002CBio...12..673R 2998:2021Natur.596..543C 2623:2018PLoSO..1302511M 2452:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2403:2021Gearc..36...92W 2188:2021Gearc..36...92W 2131:10.1038/nature22968 2123:2017Natur.547..306C 1627:2021Gearc..36...92W 1275:Gulf of Carpentaria 828:Australian rock art 758:Little Sandy Desert 649:Gulf of Carpentaria 55:rock painting from 5371:Middle Paleolithic 5213:Australian studies 5148:Australian English 4957:Telecommunications 4793:Government leaders 4736:Political ideology 4105:Palgrave Macmillan 3926:, 5 December 1999. 3886:, pp. 142–43. 3849:, p. 181-183. 3418:. pp. 61–79. 3381:, pp. 229–30. 1451:Lake Mungo remains 1396:Northern Territory 1197:penile subincision 1056: 1003:Fire-stick farming 965:using large-scale 899:Keith Windschuttle 876:eastern South Asia 872: 864: 710:Radiocarbon dating 601: 554:fire-stick farming 366:Northern Territory 276:Chinese Australian 266:African Australian 233:Telecommunications 153:Capital punishment 5706: 5705: 5698:Wallis and Futuna 5606:Associated states 5484: 5483: 5445:Ancient Beringian 5426:Upper Paleolithic 5395:archaic admixture 5390:Coastal migration 5340:Neanderthal range 5326:Lower Paleolithic 5268: 5267: 5221: 5220: 5043:Human trafficking 4980: 4979: 4862: 4861: 4662:Foreign relations 4602: 4601: 4466: 4465: 4413:Asian Australians 4293:Australian Museum 4257:978-0-521-44691-4 4213:Berndt, Ronald M. 4183:978-1-86448-950-7 4158:Thames and Hudson 4139:978-0-521-35946-7 4114:978-1-349-02423-0 4089:978-1-7433-2552-0 3918:Inga Clendinnen, 3870:978-0-582-50601-5 3622:978-1-108-01785-5 3498:978-0-465-00949-7 3433:978-3-030-25864-1 3229:CC BY 4.0 license 2992:(7873): 543–547. 2816:(10): 1303–1313. 2750:, pp. 19–23. 2535:978-0-14-300559-9 2518:Blainey, Geoffrey 2411:10.1002/gea.21822 2371:978-0-415-33811-0 2344:978 1 74331 493 7 2302:978-0-9872141-4-0 2196:10.1002/gea.21822 2117:(7663): 306–310. 2049:978-1-107-01153-3 1767:978-1-4939-0283-5 1728:978-1-3154-1888-9 1689:978-1-1084-7008-7 1635:10.1002/gea.21822 1526:978-1-7803-3753-1 1499:978-0-19-068168-5 1388:Marchinbar Island 852:Western Australia 844:Monash University 696:mitochondrial DNA 670:In the 2013 book 503: 502: 436: 435: 426:Western Australia 288:Jewish Australian 283:Indigenous people 37: 5736: 5688:Pitcairn Islands 5658:French Polynesia 5643:Christmas Island 5572:Papua New Guinea 5552:Marshall Islands 5525:Sovereign states 5511: 5504: 5497: 5488: 5487: 5385:Out of Africa II 5295: 5288: 5281: 5272: 5271: 5248: 5241: 5234: 5110:Waste management 4991: 4990: 4912:Household income 4873: 4872: 4835:Governor-General 4645:Electoral system 4613: 4612: 4477: 4476: 4345: 4344: 4321: 4314: 4307: 4298: 4297: 4271: 4261: 4236: 4208: 4187: 4161: 4143: 4118: 4093: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4035: 4029: 4028: 4004: 3998: 3992: 3986: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3942: 3933: 3927: 3916: 3910: 3909: 3893: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3874: 3856: 3850: 3844: 3838: 3837: 3789: 3783: 3780: 3774: 3771: 3765: 3762: 3756: 3755: 3734: 3728: 3725: 3719: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3707: 3696: 3690: 3687: 3681: 3678: 3672: 3669: 3663: 3656: 3650: 3631: 3625: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3585: 3576: 3573: 3567: 3564: 3558: 3555: 3549: 3546: 3540: 3537: 3531: 3528: 3519: 3516: 3510: 3507: 3501: 3486: 3480: 3477: 3468: 3465: 3459: 3452: 3446: 3445: 3406: 3400: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3382: 3376: 3370: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3333: 3325: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3282: 3272: 3255:(5): 1803–1808. 3238: 3232: 3226: 3216: 3206: 3171: 3162: 3161: 3143: 3124:Elsevier Science 3105: 3099: 3095: 3086: 3085: 3084:. Macleay Press. 3077: 3071: 3070: 3068: 3066: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3025: 2975: 2969: 2961: 2955: 2952: 2946: 2935: 2929: 2921: 2915: 2914: 2904: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2855: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2799: 2793: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2769: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2738: 2720: 2694: 2688: 2687: 2669: 2663: 2662: 2644: 2634: 2600: 2594: 2593: 2581: 2575: 2574: 2546: 2540: 2539: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2486: 2480: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2353: 2347: 2332: 2326: 2311: 2305: 2290:Rupert Gerritsen 2287: 2281: 2275: 2269: 2263: 2254: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2234: 2228: 2227: 2225: 2223: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2142: 2106: 2097: 2088: 2087: 2069: 2063: 2060: 2054: 2053: 2035: 2029: 2028: 2007: 2001: 1998: 1992: 1989: 1983: 1982: 1954: 1948: 1945: 1939: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1923:The Conversation 1914: 1908: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1892:The Conversation 1883: 1877: 1876: 1858: 1852: 1849: 1843: 1842: 1824: 1818: 1817: 1809: 1803: 1790: 1784: 1783: 1781: 1779: 1751: 1745: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1712: 1706: 1705: 1703: 1701: 1673: 1667: 1666: 1664: 1662: 1606: 1600: 1599: 1597: 1595: 1579: 1573: 1549: 1543: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1475: 1333:fish for trepang 1017:hunter-gatherers 976: 848:Kimberley region 812:geomorphologists 680:eruption of Toba 665:Rupert Gerritsen 550:hunter-gatherers 537:rock shelter in 495: 488: 481: 467: 466: 465: 326: 325: 271:Asian Australian 183:Eureka Rebellion 69: 50: 40: 35: 27: 21: 20: 5744: 5743: 5739: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5734: 5733: 5709: 5708: 5707: 5702: 5630: 5624: 5607: 5601: 5582:Solomon Islands 5520: 5515: 5485: 5480: 5479: 5420: 5419: 5365: 5364: 5335:Out of Africa I 5320: 5304: 5299: 5269: 5264: 5251: 5244: 5237: 5230: 5217: 5178:Public holidays 5119: 5063:Life expectancy 4976: 4858: 4809: 4598: 4570: 4556:Protected areas 4462: 4401: 4334: 4325: 4287: 4264: 4258: 4233: 4205: 4197:. New Holland. 4184: 4170:Kamminga, Johan 4148:Mulvaney, D. J. 4140: 4115: 4090: 4069: 4064: 4063: 4053: 4051: 4036: 4032: 4025: 4017:. p. 538. 4013:. Vol. 4. 4005: 4001: 3993: 3989: 3981: 3977: 3964: 3960: 3950: 3948: 3940: 3934: 3930: 3917: 3913: 3894: 3890: 3882: 3878: 3871: 3857: 3853: 3845: 3841: 3790: 3786: 3781: 3777: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3735: 3731: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3705: 3697: 3693: 3688: 3684: 3679: 3675: 3670: 3666: 3657: 3653: 3632: 3628: 3611: 3607: 3600: 3586: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3552: 3547: 3543: 3538: 3534: 3529: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3453: 3449: 3434: 3407: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3347: 3343: 3327: 3326: 3314: 3300: 3296: 3239: 3235: 3182:Current Biology 3172: 3165: 3115:Current Biology 3106: 3102: 3096: 3089: 3078: 3074: 3064: 3062: 3061:on 29 July 2013 3051: 3047: 2976: 2972: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2936: 2932: 2922: 2918: 2881: 2877: 2867: 2865: 2863:www.science.org 2857: 2856: 2852: 2842: 2840: 2800: 2796: 2786: 2784: 2770: 2766: 2758: 2754: 2746: 2742: 2718:10.5334/bha-624 2695: 2691: 2670: 2666: 2617:(9). 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796:anthropologists 776: 754:Carnarvon Range 704:South Australia 688: 686:Dating of sites 592: 578: 499: 463: 461: 456: 455: 446: 438: 437: 390:South Australia 354:New South Wales 330:State/Territory 323: 315: 314: 261: 253: 252: 123: 115: 114: 113: 71: 67: 59: 38: 34: 25: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5742: 5732: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5678:Norfolk Island 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5638:American Samoa 5634: 5632: 5626: 5625: 5623: 5622: 5617: 5611: 5609: 5608:of New Zealand 5603: 5602: 5600: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5528: 5526: 5522: 5521: 5514: 5513: 5506: 5499: 5491: 5482: 5481: 5478: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5440:Mammoth steppe 5437: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5356: 5350:Southeast Asia 5347: 5342: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5322: 5321: 5309: 5306: 5305: 5298: 5297: 5290: 5283: 5275: 5266: 5265: 5263: 5262: 5257: 5250: 5249: 5242: 5235: 5227: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5219: 5218: 5216: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5129: 5127: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5086: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4978: 4977: 4975: 4974: 4972:Welfare system 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4947:Superannuation 4944: 4942:Stock exchange 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4908: 4907: 4905:Public housing 4900:Home ownership 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4876: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4860: 4859: 4857: 4856: 4855: 4854: 4847:Prime Minister 4844: 4843: 4842: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4819: 4817: 4811: 4810: 4808: 4807: 4805:Shadow Cabinet 4802: 4801: 4800: 4795: 4785: 4783:Public Service 4780: 4779: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4712: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4691: 4686: 4685: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4664: 4659: 4657:Federal budget 4654: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4580: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4569: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4512: 4511: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4489:Climate change 4486: 4480: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4418:Constitutional 4415: 4409: 4407: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4324: 4323: 4316: 4309: 4301: 4295: 4294: 4286: 4285:External links 4283: 4263: 4262: 4256: 4237: 4231: 4209: 4203: 4188: 4182: 4166:Mulvaney, John 4162: 4144: 4138: 4119: 4113: 4094: 4088: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4062: 4061: 4030: 4023: 3999: 3997:, p. 170. 3987: 3975: 3958: 3928: 3920:Boyer Lectures 3911: 3888: 3876: 3869: 3851: 3839: 3804:(3): 227–229. 3784: 3775: 3766: 3757: 3750: 3729: 3720: 3711: 3691: 3682: 3673: 3664: 3651: 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792:archaeologists 775: 772: 722:Western Sydney 700:Eyre Peninsula 687: 684: 577: 574: 520:oral tradition 501: 500: 498: 497: 490: 483: 475: 472: 471: 458: 457: 454: 453: 447: 444: 443: 440: 439: 434: 433: 428: 422: 421: 416: 410: 409: 404: 398: 397: 392: 386: 385: 380: 374: 373: 368: 362: 361: 356: 350: 349: 344: 338: 337: 332: 324: 321: 320: 317: 316: 313: 312: 311: 310: 305: 295: 290: 285: 280: 279: 278: 268: 262: 259: 258: 255: 254: 251: 250: 245: 240: 238:Rail transport 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 198:Historiography 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 124: 121: 120: 117: 116: 112: 111: 106: 101: 96: 90: 89: 88: 83: 78: 72: 65: 64: 61: 60: 51: 43: 42: 30: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5741: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5714: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5673:New Caledonia 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5653:Easter Island 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5633: 5627: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5604: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5529: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5512: 5507: 5505: 5500: 5498: 5493: 5492: 5489: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5465:Younger Dryas 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5423: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5368: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5323: 5318: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5303: 5296: 5291: 5289: 5284: 5282: 5277: 5276: 5273: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5247: 5243: 5240: 5236: 5233: 5229: 5228: 5224: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 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